Learning Theories

Andragogy

Overview: Andragogy emphasizes the distinct ways in which adults learn, prioritizing autonomy, prior experience, and readiness to apply knowledge.

Definition: Andragogy is the theory and practice of adult learning, based on the idea that adults are self-directed learners whose engagement is shaped by internal motivation and relevance to real-life problems. Malcolm Knowles identified six core principles, including the importance of experience, problem-centered learning, and the need for immediate application. Andragogy stands in contrast to pedagogy, which is typically focused on dependent learners.

Classroom Example: In a professional learning workshop, teachers collaborate to solve a school-wide discipline issue, drawing from their experiences and proposing actionable strategies.

Citation: Knowles, M. S. (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Cambridge Books.

Behaviorism

Overview: Behaviorism views learning as a measurable change in behavior caused by external stimuli, reinforcement, and conditioning.

Definition: Behaviorism is a psychological framework that explains learning in terms of observable responses to environmental stimuli. It discounts internal processes like thoughts or feelings and focuses on how reinforcement and punishment shape behavior. Pioneers such as B.F. Skinner developed operant conditioning models to describe how learning can be reinforced through consistent rewards and consequences.

Classroom Example: A teacher uses a token economy to encourage on-task behavior, awarding points that can be exchanged for privileges.

Citation: Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. Macmillan.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Overview: Bloom’s Taxonomy organizes learning objectives into a hierarchy, from basic knowledge to advanced cognitive processes like evaluation and creation.

Definition: Bloom’s Taxonomy is a framework for categorizing educational goals, originally developed to promote higher-order thinking in education. It identifies six cognitive levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The revised version reorganizes these as remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. It supports instructional design by aligning learning tasks with desired outcomes.

Classroom Example: Students analyze opposing arguments in an editorial and then write their own persuasive piece on the topic.

Citation: Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Longman.

Brain-Based Learning

Overview: Brain-based learning emphasizes strategies aligned with how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information.

Definition: Brain-based learning refers to instructional practices grounded in cognitive neuroscience. It draws on research about attention, emotion, patterning, and memory to inform teaching strategies. While not a single theory, it advocates for learning environments that reduce stress, encourage curiosity, and support active, meaningful engagement with content.

Classroom Example: A teacher incorporates movement, storytelling, and emotional hooks to introduce a new unit on ancient civilizations.

Citation: Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the Brain in Mind (2nd ed.). ASCD.

Classical Conditioning

Overview: Classical conditioning describes learning as the association of a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response.

Definition: Classical conditioning is a foundational behaviorist theory developed by Ivan Pavlov, in which a conditioned stimulus comes to elicit a response previously triggered only by an unconditioned stimulus. The theory explains how environmental cues can trigger automatic behaviors through repeated associations.

Classroom Example: A teacher plays calming music before transitions, leading students to associate the sound with preparing quietly for the next activity.

Citation: Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. Oxford University Press.

Cognitive Load Theory

Overview: Cognitive Load Theory explains how instructional design should account for the limitations of working memory to enhance learning efficiency.

Definition: Developed by John Sweller, Cognitive Load Theory posits that the human brain has a limited capacity for processing new information at once. Instructional materials should minimize extraneous load, optimize intrinsic load, and support germane load to facilitate schema formation and transfer to long-term memory.

Classroom Example: A math teacher breaks a complex word problem into smaller, scaffolded steps to prevent overwhelming students’ working memory.

Citation: Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Overview: Cognitive Learning Theory focuses on the internal mental processes involved in learning, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.

Definition: Cognitive Learning Theory emphasizes how learners acquire, organize, and retrieve knowledge. Unlike behaviorist models that focus on observable behavior, this theory considers how perceptions, thoughts, and memory structures influence understanding. It often informs instructional approaches that develop metacognition and information processing skills.

Classroom Example: Students use graphic organizers to categorize and link ideas during a history lesson, supporting deeper cognitive connections.

Citation: Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed.). Pearson.

Connectivism

Overview: Connectivism is a learning theory for the digital age, emphasizing the role of networks, technology, and the flow of information across systems.

Definition: Developed by George Siemens and Stephen Downes, Connectivism suggests that learning occurs through the creation and navigation of connections among nodes in a network—including people, digital tools, and knowledge systems. It emphasizes that learning is no longer an entirely internal or individual process but distributed across networks of information.

Classroom Example: Students collaborate in an online forum to research and share findings on climate change, curating digital resources and peer feedback.

Citation: Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1), 3–10.

Constructive Alignment

Overview: Constructive Alignment is a curriculum design theory that emphasizes coherence between learning outcomes, teaching methods, and assessment tasks.

Definition: Coined by John Biggs, Constructive Alignment integrates constructivist learning principles with instructional planning. It ensures that learning activities and assessments align with intended learning outcomes, thereby promoting meaningful student engagement and achievement. The approach shifts the focus from teaching to learning.

Classroom Example: In a unit on scientific inquiry, students conduct experiments aligned with outcomes focused on hypothesis testing and data analysis, followed by performance-based assessments.

Citation: Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for Quality Learning at University (4th ed.). Open University Press.

Constructivism

Overview: Constructivism asserts that learners actively construct knowledge through experience, social interaction, and reflection.

Definition: Constructivism is a learning theory rooted in the work of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. It holds that knowledge is not transmitted from teacher to student but built by the learner through active engagement with their environment. Learning is seen as a process of meaning-making, often influenced by prior knowledge, culture, and social context.

Classroom Example: Students participate in a hands-on science lab, making predictions, testing hypotheses, and drawing conclusions based on real-world observations.

Citation: Piaget, J. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. International Universities Press.

Critical Pedagogy

Overview: Critical Pedagogy challenges traditional power structures in education, advocating for teaching that promotes social justice and critical consciousness.

Definition: Rooted in the work of Paulo Freire, Critical Pedagogy positions education as a political act. It encourages students to question and challenge dominant ideologies and social inequalities. The teacher is seen not as a transmitter of knowledge, but as a facilitator of dialogue and transformation. This theory emphasizes reflection, agency, and the development of critical awareness.

Classroom Example: Students analyze media representations of race and gender, then create their own counter-narratives through video projects or essays.

Citation: Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Herder and Herder.

Experiential Learning

Overview: Experiential Learning emphasizes learning through direct experience and reflection, with a focus on active participation and personal relevance.

Definition: Developed by David Kolb, Experiential Learning Theory outlines a four-stage cycle: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Learning is viewed as a holistic process that integrates experience, perception, cognition, and behavior. It is particularly effective in connecting theory to practice.

Classroom Example: Students visit a local water treatment plant, reflect on the experience, and then design their own sustainable water systems in class.

Citation: Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Prentice-Hall.

Heutagogy

Overview: Heutagogy is the study of self-determined learning, where learners take full ownership of the learning process, including what and how they learn.

Definition: Heutagogy extends andragogy by emphasizing learner agency, capability development, and double-loop learning. It encourages students to define their own goals, select resources, and evaluate outcomes. The approach is highly flexible and responsive, particularly suited for complex, rapidly changing environments where adaptability is critical.

Classroom Example: Students in a passion-based learning environment design and pursue their own independent inquiry projects, regularly reflecting on their progress and adapting their goals.

Citation: Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. Ultibase Articles, 5(3).

Humanism

Overview: Humanism places the learner at the center of the educational process, emphasizing self-actualization, autonomy, and emotional well-being.

Definition: Humanistic learning theory, influenced by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, focuses on the whole person and their potential for growth. It assumes that people are inherently good and motivated to learn when their basic needs are met. Education should support personal meaning-making, creativity, and individual development rather than conformity or control.

Classroom Example: A teacher creates a supportive classroom climate, allowing students to set personal learning goals and choose topics that matter to them.

Citation: Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Merrill.

Information Processing Theory

Overview: Information Processing Theory compares the human mind to a computer, focusing on how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Definition: Information Processing Theory is a cognitive framework that examines how learners perceive, attend to, store, and retrieve information. It includes stages such as sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. Instructional strategies that support attention, chunking, and rehearsal are grounded in this theory.

Classroom Example: A teacher introduces a mnemonic device to help students memorize the order of operations in math, aiding retention and recall.

Citation: Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T. (Eds.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 2). Academic Press.

Inquiry-Based Learning

Overview: Inquiry-Based Learning is a student-centered approach that uses questions, exploration, and investigation to guide learning.

Definition: Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) emphasizes the learner’s role in posing questions, conducting research, analyzing information, and constructing understanding. Grounded in constructivist theory, IBL encourages curiosity and deep thinking by allowing students to explore authentic problems and seek evidence-based solutions. It often follows cycles such as ask, investigate, create, and reflect.

Classroom Example: During a unit on ecosystems, students develop their own research questions about local wildlife and conduct field observations to test their hypotheses.

Citation: Justice, C., et al. (2007). Inquiry-based learning in higher education: Administrators’ perspectives on integrating inquiry pedagogy into the curriculum. Higher Education, 54(6), 769–779.

Dual Coding Theory

Overview: Dual Coding Theory posits that information is processed through two separate but interconnected channels: one for verbal input and one for visual input.

Definition: Developed by Allan Paivio, Dual Coding Theory suggests that learning is enhanced when content is presented using both words and visuals, as this engages both the verbal and visual systems of working memory. When information is encoded in dual formats, it increases the likelihood of retention and recall by forming multiple pathways for retrieval.

Classroom Example: A science teacher introduces the parts of a cell using both labeled diagrams and oral explanations, helping students build stronger mental models.

Citation: Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. Oxford University Press.

Operant Conditioning

Overview: Operant Conditioning explains learning as a function of rewards and punishments that influence voluntary behavior.

Definition: Introduced by B.F. Skinner, Operant Conditioning involves shaping behavior through consequences. Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior by providing a reward, while negative reinforcement does so by removing an aversive stimulus. Punishment, in contrast, decreases unwanted behaviors. This theory is foundational in classroom management strategies and behavior modification programs.

Classroom Example: A student receives extra recess time for completing homework consistently, reinforcing the desired behavior through reward.

Citation: Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Retrieval Practice

Overview: Retrieval Practice improves learning by prompting students to recall information, strengthening memory and reducing forgetting.

Definition: Retrieval Practice is a learning strategy grounded in cognitive psychology, which shows that actively recalling information from memory is more effective than passive review. Regular, low-stakes retrieval exercises—such as quizzes or flashcards—enhance retention by strengthening neural pathways and making future recall easier and faster.

Classroom Example: At the start of each class, students complete a quick quiz on the previous lesson’s content without notes to strengthen long-term memory.

Citation: Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27.

Self-Determination Theory

Overview: Self-Determination Theory explains motivation as stemming from the fulfillment of three psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Definition: Developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) posits that intrinsic motivation arises when individuals feel they have control over their actions (autonomy), are capable of succeeding (competence), and are connected to others (relatedness). In education, SDT supports environments that foster internal motivation rather than relying on external rewards or pressures.

Classroom Example: A project-based unit gives students choices in topics, tools, and final products, satisfying their need for autonomy and competence.

Citation: Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. Plenum.

Situated Learning

Overview: Situated Learning emphasizes that learning occurs most effectively in context, through authentic activity and social interaction.

Definition: Developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, Situated Learning theory posits that knowledge is constructed within and linked to the activity, context, and culture in which it is used. Rather than being abstract and decontextualized, learning is embedded in social participation. Central to this is the concept of communities of practice, where newcomers learn from more experienced members through legitimate peripheral participation.

Classroom Example: Students work alongside professionals in a local business to solve real-world problems as part of a community-based project.

Citation: Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge University Press.

Social Learning Theory

Overview: Social Learning Theory explains learning as a social process influenced by observation, imitation, and modeling.

Definition: Proposed by Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory posits that people can learn new behaviors and information by watching others, especially those seen as role models. It incorporates elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology, emphasizing the importance of attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Observational learning occurs within a social context and is affected by reinforcement and self-efficacy.

Classroom Example: A teacher models how to write a persuasive paragraph, narrating their thought process aloud while students observe and then try the same technique.

Citation: Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Prentice Hall.

Transformative Learning

Overview: Transformative Learning focuses on how individuals change their frames of reference through critical reflection and dialogue.

Definition: Introduced by Jack Mezirow, Transformative Learning Theory explains how adults revise and reinterpret previously held beliefs, assumptions, and worldviews through disorienting dilemmas and reflective discourse. Learning is not just about acquiring knowledge but about fundamentally changing how one sees the world. This process requires open dialogue, critical thinking, and personal growth.

Classroom Example: Adult learners in a sociology course engage in structured discussions about systemic inequality, leading some to revise long-held assumptions about privilege and opportunity.

Citation: Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. Jossey-Bass.

Zone of Proximal Development

Overview: The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) identifies the range of tasks a learner can perform with guidance but not yet independently.

Definition: A key concept from Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, the ZPD defines the space between what a learner can do unaided and what they can do with help from a more knowledgeable other. Instruction within this zone, often through scaffolding, optimizes growth by providing the right balance of challenge and support. The ZPD emphasizes the importance of social interaction in cognitive development.

Classroom Example: A teacher uses guiding questions and peer support to help a student solve algebraic equations that they could not tackle independently.

Citation: Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.

Metacognition

Overview: Metacognition refers to the awareness and regulation of one’s own thinking processes in learning and problem-solving.

Definition: Metacognition involves two key components: knowledge about cognition (what one knows about their thinking) and regulation of cognition (how one plans, monitors, and evaluates their learning). This theory supports strategies like goal-setting, self-questioning, and reflection. Enhancing metacognitive skills helps learners become more strategic and self-directed.

Classroom Example: Students use a reflective journal to track their thinking before, during, and after solving math problems, noting what strategies helped or hindered them.

Citation: Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911.

Multimodal Learning

Overview: Multimodal Learning engages multiple sensory modalities—such as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic—to enhance understanding and retention.

Definition: Multimodal Learning theory suggests that students learn more effectively when information is presented through multiple modes. This approach integrates different formats (e.g., text, images, audio, movement) to appeal to varied processing pathways in the brain. While not all learners have a single “preferred” modality, using a combination of modes can increase engagement and support deeper learning.

Classroom Example: In a lesson on weather patterns, students watch a video, read a diagram, engage in a hands-on simulation, and discuss their findings in small groups.

Citation: Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2007). Interactive multimodal learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 309–326.

Project-Based Learning

Overview: Project-Based Learning (PBL) centers instruction around sustained, inquiry-driven projects that integrate knowledge and skills across disciplines.

Definition: PBL is a constructivist instructional approach where students engage in complex tasks over time to explore authentic problems. Rather than isolated lessons, learning unfolds through investigation, collaboration, and the creation of meaningful products. PBL develops critical thinking, creativity, and real-world application while promoting student agency and ownership.

Classroom Example: Students design and propose solutions for reducing local pollution, incorporating science, persuasive writing, data analysis, and community outreach.

Citation: Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st century: Skills for the future. The Clearing House, 83(2), 39–43.

Transfer of Learning

Overview: Transfer of Learning refers to the ability to apply knowledge or skills learned in one context to new and different situations.

Definition: Transfer occurs when prior learning influences performance in a novel setting. It can be near (closely related contexts) or far (different domains). Effective transfer depends on how well knowledge is understood, practiced in varied contexts, and connected to broader conceptual frameworks. Teaching for transfer involves reflection, abstraction, and helping students recognize underlying principles.

Classroom Example: After learning persuasive techniques in English class, students apply them in a science project proposal to advocate for funding a school garden.

Citation: Perkins, D. N., & Salomon, G. (1992). Transfer of learning. International Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed.). Pergamon Press.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

Overview: UDL is a framework for designing flexible learning environments that accommodate individual learner differences and promote access for all.

Definition: Rooted in neuroscience and inclusive education, Universal Design for Learning provides multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression. The goal is to reduce barriers and support diverse learners, including those with disabilities. UDL encourages proactive planning so that all students can access, participate in, and succeed in rigorous learning experiences.

Classroom Example: A teacher provides audio versions of texts, visual diagrams, and hands-on activities to support learners with varied needs and preferences.

Citation: CAST. (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.2. http://udlguidelines.cast.org

Vicarious Learning

Overview: Vicarious Learning occurs when individuals acquire knowledge or skills by observing others, without direct personal experience.

Definition: Vicarious Learning, often linked to Social Learning Theory, refers to learning that takes place by watching the behaviors and consequences experienced by others. This process allows learners to gain insights, strategies, and cautionary lessons through observation rather than trial and error. It can be powerful for shaping attitudes, behaviors, and problem-solving approaches.

Classroom Example: Students watch a peer demonstrate how to solve a challenging math problem and explain their reasoning, then apply the approach themselves.

Citation: Schunk, D. H. (1987). Peer models and children’s behavioral change. Review of Educational Research, 57(2), 149–174.

References

1. Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.
2. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). Academic Press.
3. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
4. Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st century: Skills for the future. The Clearing House, 83(2), 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098650903505415
5. Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at university (4th ed.). Open University Press.
6. Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson.
7. CAST. (2018). Universal design for learning guidelines version 2.2. http://udlguidelines.cast.org
8. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
9. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
10. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Herder and Herder.
11. Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. Ultibase Articles, 5(3). Retrieved from https://www.daneto.org/learning/andragogy_heutagogy.pdf
12. Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind (2nd ed.). ASCD.
13. Justice, C., Rice, J., Warry, W., Inglis, S., Miller, S., & Sammon, S. (2007). Inquiry-based learning in higher education: Administrators’ perspectives on integrating inquiry pedagogy into the curriculum. Higher Education, 54(6), 769–779. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-006-9011-6
14. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall.
15. Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Cambridge Books.
16. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.
17. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. Jossey-Bass.
18. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2007). Interactive multimodal learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 309–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-007-9047-2
19. Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford University Press.
20. Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. Oxford University Press.
21. Perkins, D. N., & Salomon, G. (1992). Transfer of learning. In T. Husén & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 11, pp. 6452–6457). Pergamon Press.
22. Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. International Universities Press.
23. Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003
24. Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Merrill.
25. Schunk, D. H. (1987). Peer models and children’s behavioral change. Review of Educational Research, 57(2), 149–174. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543057002149
26. Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1), 3–10.
27. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.
28. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
29. Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4
30. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.

David N. Perkins

Overview: David N. Perkins is an American educational theorist and researcher known for his influential work on transfer of learning, teaching for understanding, and thinking skills development. He co-founded Harvard’s Project Zero with Nelson Goodman and worked closely with Howard Gardner.

Key Contributions: Perkins helped pioneer research into how learners transfer knowledge across contexts—distinguishing between near and far transfer—and how educators can cultivate thinking dispositions. His “Teaching for Understanding” framework emphasizes conceptual depth over rote coverage. As a senior researcher at Project Zero, he contributed to studies in cognitive science, learning environments, and arts education.

Notable Works:

• Smart Schools: Better Thinking and Learning for Every Child (1992)
• Making Learning Whole: How Seven Principles of Teaching Can Transform Education (2008)
• Numerous scholarly articles with Gavriel Salomon on the theory and practice of transfer

APA Citation: Perkins, D. N., & Salomon, G. (1992). Transfer of learning. In International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed.). Pergamon Press.