Affective Filter

Definition: The affective filter is an emotional state of stress in children during which they are not responsive to processing, learning, and storing new information. This affective (emotional) filter is in the amygdala, which becomes hyperactive during periods of high stress. In this hyperstimulated state, new information does not pass through the amygdala to reach the higher thinking centers of the brain.

Classroom Example: A student experiencing test anxiety may find it difficult to focus or retain information during a review session, as the affective filter prevents learning from taking place.

Citation: Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press.

Amygdala

Definition: Part of the limbic system in the temporal lobe. The amygdala was first believed to function as a brain center for responding only to anxiety and fear. When the amygdala senses a threat, it becomes activated (high metabolic activity as seen by greatly increased radioactive glucose on positron emission tracing (PET) and oxygen use in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). These neuroimaging findings show that when children feel helpless and anxious, the amygdala is activated; thus, new information coming through the sensory intake areas of the brain cannot pass through the amygdala’s affective filter to gain access to memory circuits.

Classroom Example: When a teacher creates a safe and welcoming environment, students are less likely to feel threatened, keeping the amygdala calm and more open to learning experiences.

Citation: LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life. Simon & Schuster.

Attention

Definition: The selective focus on certain stimuli while ignoring others; a prerequisite for encoding information into memory.

Classroom Example: A teacher dims the lights and reduces distractions during a lesson on poetry to help students concentrate on the spoken words and rhythm.

Citation: Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Research on attention networks as a model for the integration of psychological science. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 1–23.

Axon

Definition: This is the fiber-like extension of the neuron that connects the cell body to other target cells (neurons, muscles, glands).

Classroom Example: When explaining how the brain sends messages, a teacher uses a diagram showing axons connecting to other neurons and simulates the “message pathway” using string and paper notes.

Brain Imaging (Neuroimaging)

Definition: Non-invasive imaging techniques have contributed to our knowledge of the structure, function, or biochemical status of the brain. Structural imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans reveal the overall structure of the brain. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provides visualization of the processing of neural activity in the brain while a subject is conscious and performing tasks. This processing is visualized directly as areas of the brain that are “lit up” by increased blood flow and oxygenation. Positron-emission tomography (PET) provides information about the quantity of important chemicals in the brain such as neurotransmitters, which are substances used by neurons to communicate with other neurons and end organs.

Classroom Example: During a brain science unit, students explore images from fMRI scans and compare how different parts of the brain activate when performing tasks like speaking or solving puzzles.

Brain Mapping

Definition: Using electroencephalography (EEG) or functional MRI over time, brain mapping measures electrical activity representing brain activation along neural pathways. These techniques allow scientists to track which parts of the brain are active when a person is processing information at various stages of information intake, patterning, storing, and retrieval. The levels of activation in particular brain regions are associated with the intensity of information processing.

Classroom Example: A high school biology teacher introduces students to EEGs by showing how different mental tasks activate different brain regions, using visual examples from real studies.

Cerebellum

Definition: This is a large cauliflower-looking structure on the back of the brainstem under the cerebral cortex. This structure is very important in motor movement and motor-vestibular memory and learning.

Classroom Example: When students learn to ride bikes or perform choreography in physical education, their cerebellum helps encode and refine those motor skills through practice.

Citation: Manto, M., & Jissendi, P. (2012). Cerebellum: Links between development, developmental disorders and motor learning. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 6, 1.

Cerebral Cortex

Definition: This is the outermost layer of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. The cortex mediates all conscious activity, including planning, problem-solving, language, and speech. It is also involved in perception, image processing, and voluntary motor activity.

Classroom Example: During project-based learning, students activate their cerebral cortex as they plan, collaborate, and use language to express ideas and solve complex problems.

Citation: Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2015). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (7th ed.). Worth Publishers.

Central Nervous System

Definition: This is the portion of the nervous system composed of the spinal cord and brain.

Classroom Example: In a science class, students build models of the brain and spinal cord to better understand how messages are transmitted through the central nervous system.

Cognition

Definition: This refers to the mental process by which we become aware of the world and use that information to problem solve and make sense out of the world. It is somewhat oversimplified but cognition refers to thinking and all of the mental processes related to thinking.

Classroom Example: When students analyze a character’s motivations in literature or develop hypotheses in science, they are engaging in cognitive processes.

Citation: Anderson, J. R. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th ed.). Worth Publishers.

Dendrites

Definition: Branched protoplasmic extensions that sprout from the cell bodies of neurons. Dendrites receive connections from other neurons and coordinate electrical activity that passes down axons. A single neuron may possess many dendrites. Dendrites in cortical neurons increase in size and number in response to learned skills, experience, and information storage. New dendrites grow as branches from frequently activated neurons. Proteins called growth factors stimulate this dendritic growth.

Classroom Example: As students repeatedly practice a musical scale or math skill, their dendrites grow to strengthen those neural pathways, improving long-term retention.

Dopamine

Definition: A neurotransmitter most associated with attention, decision making, executive function, and reward-stimulated learning. Dopamine release from the midbrain has been found to increase in response to rewards and positive experiences. Scans reveal greater activation of dopaminergic areas while subjects are playing, laughing, exercising, and receiving acknowledgment (e.g., praise) for achievement.

Classroom Example: A teacher uses positive feedback and recognition strategies to trigger dopamine release and improve students’ focus and motivation during lessons.

Citation: Schultz, W. (2002). Getting formal with dopamine and reward. Neuron, 36(2), 241–263.

Executive Functions

Definition: Cognitive processing of information that takes place in the prefrontal cortex that exercise conscious control over one’s emotions and thoughts. This control allows for patterned information to be used for organizing, analyzing, sorting, connecting, planning, prioritizing, sequencing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, assessment, abstractions, problem solving, attention focusing, and linking information to appropriate actions.

Classroom Example: A teacher scaffolds a multi-step research project by modeling time management, sequencing tasks, and using checklists to support students’ executive function skills.

Citation: Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168.

Glia

Definition: These are specialized cells that nourish, support, and complement the activity of neurons in the brain. Astrocytes are the most common and play important roles in regulating blood flow to activated areas of the brain, regulating the amount of neurotransmitter in the synapse by taking up excess neurotransmitter, and providing important growth factors for modulating neuronal function. Oligodendrocytes wrap axons in myelin, which acts as an insulator so that nerve activity can be rapidly transmitted from area to area of the brain. Microglia are the “macrophages” of the brain and regulate inflammation in the brain.

Classroom Example: While not a topic typically covered directly in K–12 settings, teachers can enhance neuroscience units by showing how glial cells support neural function during tasks like learning new vocabulary or solving puzzles.

Graphic Organizers

Definition: Diagrams that are designed to coincide with the brain’s style of patterning. In order for sensory information to be encoded (the initial processing of the information entering from the senses), consolidated, and stored, the information must be patterned into a brain-compatible form. Graphic organizers can promote this patterning in the brain when children participate in creating relevant connections to their existing memory circuitry.

Classroom Example: During a nonfiction reading lesson, students use a cause-effect chart to organize historical events and connect them to prior knowledge.

Gray Matter

Definition: The gray refers to the darker color of the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures relative to the white matter of axon tracts. The axon tracts appear intensely white because of the myelin surrounding the axons. The myelin contains a very high concentration of lipids and cholesterol, causing a “white” greasy appearance. In contrast to white matter, gray matter contains neurons, dendrites, synapses, and many astrocytes. It is in the gray matter where neural signals are integrated and analyzed.

Classroom Example: A high school anatomy class labels brain models to differentiate between white and gray matter and discuss how each contributes to learning and memory.

Citation: Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010). Structural MRI of pediatric brain development: What have we learned and where are we going? Neuron, 67(5), 728–734.

Hippocampus

Definition: The hippocampus is a folded structure in the floor of the ventral horn of each lateral ventricle of the brain that consists mainly of gray matter that has a major role in memory processes. The hippocampus takes sensory inputs and integrates them with relational or associational patterns from preexisting memories, thereby binding the information from the new sensory input into storable patterns of relational memories. This is called memory consolidation. The hippocampus also plays an important role in spatial recognition.

Classroom Example: During a field trip, students remember new content better when the teacher connects it to a previous lesson, activating the hippocampus’s role in memory consolidation.

Citation: Squire, L. R., & Zola-Morgan, S. (1991). The medial temporal lobe memory system. Science, 253(5026), 1380–1386.

Limbic System

Definition: This is a group of functionally linked structures in the brain (hippocampal formation, amygdala, septal nuclei, cingulate cortex, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex). The limbic system is involved in regulation of emotion, memory, and processing complex socio-emotional communication.

Classroom Example: A classroom that supports emotional safety and collaborative discussion can engage the limbic system in ways that improve both memory and motivation.

Citation: Rolls, E. T. (2015). Limbic systems for emotion and for memory, but no single limbic system. Cortex, 62, 119–157.

Long-Term Memory

Definition: Long-term memory is created when short-term memory is strengthened through review and meaningful association with existing patterns and prior knowledge. This strengthening results in a physical change in the structure of neuronal circuits.

Classroom Example: A teacher helps students retain science vocabulary by repeatedly connecting terms to diagrams, stories, and real-life examples over time.

Long-Term Memory

Definition: Long-term memory is created when short-term memory is strengthened through review and meaningful association with existing patterns and prior knowledge. This strengthening results in a physical change in the structure of neuronal circuits.

Classroom Example: A teacher helps students retain science vocabulary by repeatedly connecting terms to diagrams, stories, and real-life examples over time.