Models and Frameworks
Instructional models and frameworks that guide modern teaching and learning
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1. 21st-Century Pedagogy
Definition: A pedagogical framework that integrates modern competencies such as collaboration, digital literacy, global awareness, and creativity into traditional instructional methods to better prepare students for a rapidly changing world.
Classroom Example: A teacher blends problem-solving, cross-cultural communication, and digital tools into a project on global sustainability, aligning content with 21st-century competencies.
Citation: Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). *21st Century Skills: Learning for Life in Our Times*. Jossey-Bass.
2. Backward Design
Definition: An instructional design framework that begins with identifying desired learning outcomes (goals), then determining acceptable evidence of learning (assessment), and finally planning learning experiences and instruction.
Classroom Example: A teacher first decides what students should be able to *do* at the end of a unit (e.g., write a persuasive essay), then designs the rubric, and only then plans lessons to teach essay writing skills.
Citation: Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). *Understanding by design* (2nd ed.). ASCD.
3. Bloom’s Taxonomy
Definition: A classification system used to define and differentiate levels of human cognition—thinking, learning, and understanding. It includes six levels: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating.
Classroom Example: A teacher designs questions for a lesson that progress from “List the capitals of the states” (remembering) to “Justify why a particular capital was chosen” (evaluating).
Citation: Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). *Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive domain*. David McKay.
4. Constructivism
Definition: A learning theory asserting that learners actively construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. Learning is an active process where students build new ideas or concepts based on their current and past knowledge.
Classroom Example: Students engage in a hands-on science experiment to discover principles of buoyancy for themselves, rather than just being told the principles by the teacher.
Citation: Piaget, J. (1954). *The construction of reality in the child*. Basic Books.
5. Heick Learning Taxonomy
Definition: A taxonomy developed by Terry Heick that builds on Bloom’s Taxonomy by emphasizing modern learning dynamics such as visibility, authenticity, self-direction, and transfer of understanding to new contexts.
Classroom Example: Instead of stopping at comprehension, students analyze, create, and apply their learning in real-world scenarios using technology and peer collaboration.
Citation: Heick, T. (2013). *The TeachThought Learning Taxonomy*. TeachThought.com.
6. Inside-Out Learning Model
Definition: A model proposed by Terry Heick that shifts learning outward, using community-based problems and authentic environments as curricular anchors, prioritizing relevance and local accountability over standardized outcomes.
Classroom Example: A high school civics class partners with local government to draft proposals for urban planning challenges.
Citation: Heick, T. (2016). *Inside-Out Learning: A Model for Community-Centered Education*. TeachThought.com.
7. Me Learning Framework
Definition: A student-centered framework by Terry Heick that prioritizes identity, voice, and purpose in learning design. It encourages students to pursue knowledge that is meaningful to them while building academic capacity.
Classroom Example: Learners design their own inquiry projects aligned with personal interests, reflecting on how learning affects their thinking and values.
Citation: Heick, T. (2015). *The Me Learning Framework*. TeachThought.com.
8. Project-Based Learning Framework
Definition: A model of instruction where students gain knowledge and skills by working over an extended period to investigate and respond to authentic, engaging, and complex questions or challenges.
Classroom Example: A science class explores local water quality issues and presents solutions to the city council.
Citation: Bell, S. (2010). Project-Based Learning for the 21st Century: Skills for the Future. *The Clearing House*, 83(2), 39–43.
9. SAMR Model
Definition: A framework for integrating technology into teaching and learning, consisting of four levels: Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition. It helps educators evaluate the depth of technology integration.
Classroom Example: Instead of writing an essay on paper (Substitution), students might use a word processor (Augmentation), then collaborate on a shared online document (Modification), or create a multimedia presentation with embedded research and interactive elements (Redefinition).
Citation: Puentedura, R. R. (2006). *Transformation, technology, and education: A brief introduction to the SAMR model*.
10. Sync Teaching Model
Definition: A flexible instructional framework that blends self-directed learning with strategic moments of teacher-directed synchronization. Developed by Terry Heick, it allows learners to explore independently while rejoining the class at key checkpoints.
Classroom Example: Students independently research historical causes of a war, then sync for a teacher-guided discussion and synthesis activity.
Citation: Heick, T. (2017). *The Sync Teaching Method*. TeachThought.com.
11. TPACK Framework
Definition: Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is a framework that identifies the knowledge teachers need to teach effectively with technology. It highlights the intersection of content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technological knowledge.
Classroom Example: A science teacher not only knows biology content (CK) and how to teach effectively (PK), but also how to use simulation software (TK) to enhance student understanding of complex biological processes (TPACK).
Citation: Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. *Teachers College Record*, *108*(6), 1017–1054.
Table of Contents
AI in Education
Core terms related to artificial intelligence and its role in teaching, learning, and educational technology
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Definition: A field of computer science focused on creating systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as decision-making, pattern recognition, and language understanding.
Classroom Example: An AI-powered writing assistant gives students real-time suggestions to improve grammar and clarity in their essays.
2. Machine Learning (ML)
Definition: A subfield of AI where algorithms learn from data to improve performance on a specific task without being explicitly programmed for every scenario.
Classroom Example: A learning platform uses ML to adjust reading levels for students based on their past performance and growth.
3. Large Language Model (LLM)
Definition: A type of AI model trained on massive text datasets to understand and generate human-like language, often used in chatbots and writing tools.
Classroom Example: Students use an LLM to rephrase research findings in simpler language for a middle school audience.
4. Generative AI
Definition: AI systems designed to create new content—such as text, images, music, or code—based on patterns learned from training data.
Classroom Example: A teacher has students evaluate the accuracy of an AI-generated science explanation compared to textbook information.
5. Prompt Engineering
Definition: The process of crafting effective inputs or questions to guide AI systems in producing accurate, useful, or creative outputs.
Classroom Example: A teacher shows students how small changes in wording can produce different responses from an AI chatbot.
6. Prompt
Definition: A user’s input to an AI system, often in the form of a question or command, that determines the system’s response or output.
Classroom Example: A student types “Summarize this article in 3 sentences” into an AI tool to help with note-taking.
7. ChatGPT
Definition: An AI chatbot developed by OpenAI that uses a large language model to understand and generate natural language responses, often used for educational assistance, writing, and conversation.
Classroom Example: Students use ChatGPT to brainstorm ideas for persuasive essays and compare them to their own drafts.
8. AI Literacy
Definition: The ability to understand, evaluate, and responsibly use artificial intelligence tools and systems, including awareness of their limitations, potential biases, and ethical implications.
Classroom Example: A digital citizenship unit teaches students how to fact-check AI-generated content and understand the risks of overreliance.
9. Ethical AI Use in Education
Definition: The practice of using AI tools in ways that protect student data, promote fairness, support equity, and ensure human oversight in decision-making.
Classroom Example: A school chooses an AI tutoring platform that avoids collecting unnecessary personal data and includes teacher monitoring features.
10. Human-in-the-Loop (HITL)
Definition: A design approach in AI systems that ensures a human remains involved in critical decisions, especially those that impact learning, assessment, or student wellbeing.
Classroom Example: An AI grades essays for grammar but flags any ambiguous results for teacher review.
Assessment Terms
Key types, principles, and tools that guide how student learning is measured
1. Authentic Assessment
Definition: A form of assessment that asks students to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills.
Classroom Example: Instead of taking a traditional test, students create a multimedia presentation to analyze a historical event.
Citation: Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. *Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation*, 2(2).
2. Benchmark Assessment
Definition: Periodic assessments administered throughout the school year to evaluate student progress and inform instruction.
Classroom Example: A school gives a reading comprehension benchmark test each quarter to track growth.
Citation: Perie, M., Marion, S., & Gong, B. (2007). *A framework for considering interim assessments*. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice.
3. Diagnostic Assessment
Definition: A pre-instruction assessment used to identify students’ existing knowledge, skills, or misconceptions before new learning begins.
Classroom Example: A math teacher gives a pre-test on fractions to understand what students already know.
4. Formative Assessment
Definition: Informal assessments used during instruction to monitor learning and adjust teaching accordingly.
Classroom Example: A teacher uses exit tickets to check for understanding after a lesson.
Citation: Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. *Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice*, 5(1), 7–74.
5. Norm-Referenced Assessment
Definition: An assessment that compares a student’s performance to that of a larger group, typically using percentiles.
Classroom Example: Standardized tests like the SAT that rank students based on national norms.
Citation: Popham, W. J. (2005). *Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know*. Pearson Education.
6. Performance Assessment
Definition: An assessment requiring students to complete a task, project, or product that demonstrates applied skills and knowledge.
Classroom Example: Students design and carry out a science experiment as their final exam.
7. Portfolio Assessment
Definition: An assessment that evaluates student learning based on a curated collection of their work over time.
Classroom Example: A student’s writing portfolio includes drafts, revisions, and final pieces to demonstrate growth.
8. Reliability
Definition: The consistency and stability of assessment results over time or across different raters.
Classroom Example: If the same student takes the same test twice and scores similarly both times, the test is considered reliable.
Citation: Nitko, A. J., & Brookhart, S. M. (2011). *Educational assessment of students*. Pearson.
9. Rubric
Definition: A scoring guide used to evaluate performance, product, or process based on a set of criteria and levels of quality.
Classroom Example: A writing assignment rubric evaluates organization, grammar, and voice on a 1–4 scale.
10. Standards-Based Assessment
Definition: An assessment aligned with learning standards that measures student progress toward specific objectives.
Classroom Example: A student is assessed on mastery of a specific math standard like “adding fractions with unlike denominators.”
11. Summative Assessment
Definition: A high-stakes assessment that evaluates student learning at the end of an instructional unit.
Classroom Example: A unit exam, final project, or standardized test used to assign a grade.
12. Validity
Definition: The degree to which an assessment accurately measures what it is intended to measure.
Classroom Example: A math test should measure math ability, not reading comprehension.
Citation: Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment. *American Psychologist*, 50(9), 741–749.
Classroom Management Terms
Key practices, routines, and strategies that create a productive learning environment
1. Behavior Management
Definition: The strategies, interventions, and systems teachers use to prevent and respond to student misbehavior.
Classroom Example: A teacher uses proximity, praise, and redirection to manage off-task behavior during group work.
2. Classroom Climate
Definition: The overall emotional and psychological tone of the classroom, shaped by relationships, routines, and student voice.
Classroom Example: A classroom where students feel safe, valued, and respected contributes to a positive climate.
Citation: Freiberg, H. J. (1999). *School climate: Measuring, improving and sustaining healthy learning environments.* Routledge.
3. Classroom Procedures
Definition: Specific routines or protocols used to guide everyday tasks and transitions in the classroom.
Classroom Example: Students enter quietly, hang backpacks, and begin a bell-ringer activity every morning.
Citation: Wong, H. K., & Wong, R. T. (2009). *The first days of school: How to be an effective teacher.* Harry K. Wong Publications.
4. Engagement Strategies
Definition: Techniques used to capture and maintain student attention and participation in learning activities.
Classroom Example: Using think-pair-share during a mini-lesson helps students stay mentally active and socially involved.
Citation: Marzano, R. J. (2007). *The art and science of teaching.* ASCD.
5. Expectations
Definition: The clearly communicated standards for behavior and academic performance in the classroom.
Classroom Example: A teacher posts and reviews class expectations at the start of each week.
6. Positive Reinforcement
Definition: The use of rewards or affirmations to increase the likelihood of a desired behavior occurring again.
Classroom Example: A student receives praise and a sticker for completing their reading quietly.
Citation: Skinner, B. F. (1953). *Science and human behavior.* Macmillan.
7. Restorative Practices
Definition: A relationship-centered approach to discipline focused on repairing harm, rebuilding trust, and preventing future conflict.
Classroom Example: After a conflict, students participate in a restorative circle to discuss the issue and agree on steps forward.
Citation: Evans, K. R., & Vaandering, D. (2016). *The little book of restorative justice in education.* Good Books.
8. Rules vs. Norms
Definition: Rules are explicit expectations established by the teacher or institution; norms emerge from shared behaviors and values among students.
Classroom Example: A classroom rule might be “raise your hand before speaking,” while a norm might be taking turns respectfully in group work.
9. Seating Arrangement
Definition: The strategic organization of physical student seating in the classroom to support learning and behavior.
Classroom Example: Students are grouped in pods for cooperative learning during a science lab.
10. Transitions
Definition: The movement from one activity, subject, or part of the day to another, often requiring clear signals and expectations.
Classroom Example: A teacher rings a chime and counts down to signal students to clean up and return to their seats.
Citation: Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2016). *Classroom management for elementary teachers.* Pearson.
Critical Thinking
1. Analysis
Definition: Analysis in critical thinking refers to the process of breaking down complex information into smaller parts to examine how they relate to one another.
Classroom Example: A student compares multiple perspectives in a debate by separating claims, evidence, and assumptions from each speaker.
Citation: Ennis, R. H. (1993). *Critical Thinking Assessment*. Theory Into Practice, 32(3), 179–186.
2. Argument
Definition: In critical thinking, an argument is a reasoned set of claims intended to support a conclusion using evidence and logic.
Classroom Example: In a persuasive essay, students structure their writing with a claim, supporting evidence, and refutations of counterclaims.
Citation: Toulmin, S. (1958). *The Uses of Argument*. Cambridge University Press.
3. Assumption
Definition: An assumption is an unstated premise or belief that underlies an argument or line of reasoning.
Classroom Example: Students analyze the assumptions behind a historical policy, identifying biases in its creation and consequences.
Citation: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2008). *The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools*. Foundation for Critical Thinking.
4. Bias
Definition: Bias is a systematic deviation from objective judgment due to personal beliefs, emotions, or social pressures.
Classroom Example: Students review news articles to identify and discuss linguistic or selection bias.
Citation: Kahneman, D. (2011). *Thinking, Fast and Slow*. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
5. Claim
Definition: A claim is a statement or assertion presented as fact, often forming the basis of an argument.
Classroom Example: During a science experiment, a student claims that light affects plant growth and supports it with their data.
Citation: Kuhn, D. (1991). *The Skills of Argument*. Cambridge University Press.
6. Evaluation
Definition: Evaluation is the process of assessing the credibility, relevance, or value of information or arguments.
Classroom Example: Students rate the reliability of different sources in a research paper and explain their reasoning.
Citation: Facione, P. A. (1990). *Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus*. American Philosophical Association.
7. Evidence
Definition: Evidence is factual or logical support used to justify a claim or argument.
Classroom Example: Students cite historical documents to back up their thesis in a social studies paper.
Citation: McPeck, J. E. (1981). *Critical Thinking and Education*. St. Martin’s Press.
8. Inference
Definition: Inference involves drawing logical conclusions from available information or evidence.
Classroom Example: After reading a short story, students infer a character’s motivation based on indirect clues in the text.
Citation: Halpern, D. F. (2013). *Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking*. Psychology Press.
9. Logic
Definition: Logic refers to the formal principles of valid reasoning and the structure of sound arguments.
Classroom Example: Students diagram deductive arguments in a philosophy class to test validity.
Citation: Copi, I. M., Cohen, C., & McMahon, K. (2014). *Introduction to Logic*. Pearson.
10. Reasoning
Definition: Reasoning is the cognitive process of drawing conclusions from premises or evidence.
Classroom Example: Students explain their problem-solving strategy in math by walking through their reasoning step by step.
Citation: Lipman, M. (2003). *Thinking in Education*. Cambridge University Press.
Literacy
Core concepts and strategies that support reading, writing, and language development
1. Close Reading
Definition: A careful and purposeful reading of a text, focusing on significant details or patterns to develop a deep understanding of its meaning, structure, and purpose.
Classroom Example: Students annotate a short story to identify figurative language and analyze character motivation.
2. Comprehension Strategies
Definition: Deliberate techniques used by readers to understand, remember, and communicate what they read. These include summarizing, predicting, questioning, visualizing, and clarifying.
Classroom Example: Students pause during independent reading to summarize paragraphs and make predictions about what will happen next.
3. Critical Literacy
Definition: An approach to reading that emphasizes understanding the relationship between language and power, encouraging readers to analyze texts for bias, assumptions, and underlying ideologies.
Classroom Example: Students evaluate an advertisement to discuss how visual and language choices influence perception.
4. Decoding
Definition: The ability to apply knowledge of letter-sound relationships, including knowledge of letter patterns, to correctly pronounce written words.
Classroom Example: A student sounds out the letters in the word “ship” using their knowledge of digraphs.
5. Fluency
Definition: The ability to read text accurately, quickly, and with expression. Fluency bridges word recognition and comprehension and is essential for understanding what is read.
Classroom Example: A student reads a passage aloud with appropriate pacing, tone, and intonation.
6. Phonemic Awareness
Definition: The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds—phonemes—in spoken words. It is a foundational skill for learning to read and is distinct from phonics, which involves written letters.
7. Reading Levels
Definition: A framework for matching readers with texts of appropriate complexity. Levels are based on vocabulary, sentence structure, and conceptual demands and are used to support differentiated instruction.
8. Text Structures
Definition: The organizational patterns authors use to present information in nonfiction texts, such as cause and effect, compare and contrast, chronological order, and problem-solution.
Classroom Example: Students use graphic organizers to identify and compare different structures in informational texts.
9. Vocabulary Development
Definition: The process of acquiring new words and deepening understanding of known words. Vocabulary knowledge supports reading comprehension, writing, and oral communication.
10. Writing Process
Definition: A recursive set of stages writers follow to produce effective text: prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing.
Mental Health
1. Anxiety
Definition: Anxiety is a psychological condition characterized by excessive worry, fear, or unease that can interfere with daily functioning. It may be acute or chronic and can manifest physically (e.g., racing heart, restlessness) or cognitively (e.g., rumination, hypervigilance).
Citation: American Psychiatric Association. (2013). *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.)*.
2. PTSD and Complex PTSD (CPTSD)
Definition: PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) is a mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. CPTSD, or Complex PTSD, involves chronic trauma—often relational or repeated over time—and is marked by emotional dysregulation, distorted self-concept, and difficulties with relationships. It is commonly seen in people who have experienced childhood abuse, neglect, or prolonged domestic violence.
Citation: Herman, J. L. (1992). *Trauma and Recovery*. Basic Books.
3. Depression
Definition: Depression is a mood disorder that involves persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, and impaired cognitive and emotional functioning. It can vary in severity and duration and may affect appetite, sleep, and academic performance.
Citation: National Institute of Mental Health. (2022). *Depression*. Retrieved from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/depression
4. Shame
Definition: Shame is a painful emotion resulting from the perception that one is flawed or inadequate. Unlike guilt, which is related to specific behaviors, shame targets the self and can erode a student’s confidence and sense of belonging.
Citation: Brown, B. (2006). *Shame Resilience Theory*. In *The Journal of Counseling & Development*, 84(1), 1–10.
5. Self-Talk
Definition: Self-talk refers to the internal dialogue a person has with themselves. It can be positive, encouraging adaptive behavior and resilience, or negative, reinforcing doubt and low self-worth.
Citation: Seligman, M. E. P. (2006). *Learned Optimism*. Vintage.
Models and Frameworks
Instructional models and frameworks that guide modern teaching and learning
1. 21st-Century Pedagogy
Definition: A pedagogical framework that integrates modern competencies such as collaboration, digital literacy, global awareness, and creativity into traditional instructional methods to better prepare students for a rapidly changing world.
Citation: Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). *21st Century Skills: Learning for Life in Our Times*. Jossey-Bass.
2. Heick Learning Taxonomy
Definition: A taxonomy developed by Terry Heick that builds on Bloom’s Taxonomy by emphasizing modern learning dynamics such as visibility, authenticity, self-direction, and transfer of understanding to new contexts.
Citation: Heick, T. (2013). *The TeachThought Learning Taxonomy*. TeachThought.com.
3. Inside-Out Learning Model
Definition: A model proposed by Terry Heick that shifts learning outward, using community-based problems and authentic environments as curricular anchors, prioritizing relevance and local accountability over standardized outcomes.
Citation: Heick, T. (2016). *Inside-Out Learning: A Model for Community-Centered Education*. TeachThought.com.
4. Me Learning Framework
Definition: A student-centered framework by Terry Heick that prioritizes identity, voice, and purpose in learning design. It encourages students to pursue knowledge that is meaningful to them while building academic capacity.
Citation: Heick, T. (2015). *The Me Learning Framework*. TeachThought.com.
5. Project-Based Learning Framework
Definition: A model of instruction where students gain knowledge and skills by working over an extended period to investigate and respond to authentic, engaging, and complex questions or challenges.
Citation: Bell, S. (2010). Project-Based Learning for the 21st Century: Skills for the Future. *The Clearing House*, 83(2), 39–43.
6. Sync Teaching Model
Definition: A flexible instructional framework that blends self-directed learning with strategic moments of teacher-directed synchronization. Developed by Terry Heick, it allows learners to explore independently while rejoining the class at key checkpoints.
Citation: Heick, T. (2017). *The Sync Teaching Method*. TeachThought.com.
Pedagogy
Core teaching concepts, strategies, and philosophies that influence instructional design and classroom practices.
1. Active Learning
Definition: A teaching approach that actively engages students in the learning process through discussion, problem-solving, case studies, role plays, and other interactive methods.
Citation: Bonwell, C.C., & Eison, J.A. (1991). *Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom.* ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1.
2. Direct Instruction
Definition: A structured, teacher-led model of instruction that emphasizes clear objectives, explicit teaching, guided practice, and feedback.
Citation: Rosenshine, B. (1987). *Explicit Teaching and Teacher Training.* Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 34–36.
3. Gradual Release of Responsibility
Definition: An instructional model that moves from teacher-led instruction (“I do”), to guided practice (“We do”), to independent practice (“You do”).
Citation: Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2014). *Better Learning Through Structured Teaching: A Framework for the Gradual Release of Responsibility.* ASCD.
4. Inquiry-Based Learning
Definition: A pedagogical strategy where students investigate questions, problems, or scenarios rather than simply receiving facts and information.
Citation: Justice, C., Rice, J., Warry, W., et al. (2007). *Inquiry in Higher Education: Reflections and Directions on Course Design and Teaching Methods.* Innovative Higher Education, 31(4), 201–214.
5. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
Definition: The intersection of content knowledge and pedagogical strategies—how well a teacher understands how to teach specific content effectively to students.
Citation: Shulman, L. S. (1986). *Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching.* Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14.
6. Scaffolding
Definition: Instructional support given to students early in the learning process that is gradually removed as they become more proficient and independent.
Citation: Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). *Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.* Harvard University Press.
7. Socratic Method
Definition: A form of inquiry-based teaching focused on dialogue and open-ended questioning that encourages critical thinking, reflection, and student-led discovery.
Citation: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). *The Socratic Method.* Foundation for Critical Thinking.
8. Student-Centered Learning
Definition: An educational approach that shifts the focus of instruction from teacher-led delivery to student-driven exploration, emphasizing autonomy, voice, and choice.
Citation: McCombs, B. L., & Whisler, J. S. (1997). *The Learner-Centered Classroom and School: Strategies for Increasing Student Motivation and Achievement.* Jossey-Bass.
Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
1. Emotional Intelligence
Definition: Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to recognize, understand, manage, and influence one’s own emotions and the emotions of others.
Citation: Goleman, D. (1995). *Emotional Intelligence*. Bantam Books.
2. Empathy
Definition: Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person, often leading to compassionate behavior.
Citation: Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2006). A social–neuroscience perspective on empathy. *Current Directions in Psychological Science*, 15(2), 54–58.
3. Self-Regulation
Definition: Self-regulation is the ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in pursuit of long-term goals and in alignment with social expectations.
Citation: Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2004). Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications. Guilford Press.
4. Social Awareness
Definition: Social awareness is the ability to perceive and understand social cues and the perspectives of others, including individuals from diverse backgrounds.
Citation: Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). (2020). SEL Framework.
5. Relationship Skills
Definition: Relationship skills refer to the ability to establish and maintain healthy and rewarding relationships through communication, cooperation, conflict resolution, and seeking help when needed.
Citation: Durlak, J. A., et al. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis. *Child Development*, 82(1), 405–432.
6. Responsible Decision-Making
Definition: Responsible decision-making involves making caring and constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions based on ethical standards, safety concerns, and social norms.
Citation: CASEL. (2020). Core SEL Competencies.
7. Habits of Mind
Definition: Habits of Mind are a set of 16 problem-solving, life-related skills identified by Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick that support thoughtful and intelligent behavior when faced with challenges.
Citation: Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (2000). Habits of Mind: A Developmental Series. ASCD.
Project-Based Learning (PBL)
1. Authentic Audience
Definition: An authentic audience in PBL refers to real-world individuals or groups—beyond the classroom—who view, critique, or benefit from students’ work.
Citation: Larmer, J., & Mergendoller, J. R. (2010). Seven Essentials for Project-Based Learning. *Educational Leadership*, 68(1), 34–37.
2. Critique and Revision
Definition: This refers to structured opportunities for students to receive and offer feedback to improve the quality of their work before final submission or presentation.
Citation: Ron Berger. (2003). *An Ethic of Excellence: Building a Culture of Craftsmanship with Students*. Heinemann.
3. Driving Question
Definition: A driving question is a central, open-ended query that guides the learning process and encourages sustained student inquiry.
Citation: Thomas, J. W. (2000). A Review of Research on Project-Based Learning. *The Autodesk Foundation*.
4. Entry Event
Definition: An entry event is a provocative experience, question, or scenario designed to launch a project and spark curiosity among students.
Citation: Buck Institute for Education. (2017). *Project design rubric*.
5. Inquiry-Based Learning
Definition: Inquiry-based learning emphasizes student questioning, exploration, and evidence-based reasoning as central to the learning process.
Citation: Bell, S. (2010). Project-Based Learning for the 21st Century: Skills for the Future. *The Clearing House*, 83(2), 39–43.
6. Project Launch
Definition: The project launch is the official start of a PBL unit, often involving a clear introduction to the driving question, timeline, goals, and audience.
Citation: Boss, S., & Krauss, J. (2014). *Reinventing Project-Based Learning*. ISTE.
7. Project Tuning
Definition: Project tuning is a collaborative process where teachers and students give and receive structured feedback to improve a project plan or product before implementation.
Citation: Allen, D., & Blythe, T. (2004). *The facilitator’s book of questions*. Teachers College Press.
8. Public Product
Definition: A public product is the final output of a project that is shared with an audience beyond the classroom, reinforcing accountability and relevance.
Citation: Larmer, J., & Mergendoller, J. R. (2015). *Gold Standard PBL: Essential project design elements*. Buck Institute for Education.
9. Sustained Inquiry
Definition: Sustained inquiry is a prolonged, iterative process of questioning, researching, analyzing, and refining ideas or products over time within a project.
Citation: Buck Institute for Education. (2015). *Gold Standard PBL design elements*.
10. Voice and Choice
Definition: Voice and choice refer to the degree of autonomy students have in selecting topics, tools, team members, and presentation formats in a project.
Citation: Larmer, J. (2018). What does student voice really mean in PBL? *PBLWorks*.
Special Education
1. 504 Plan
Definition: A 504 Plan is a formal plan developed by schools to provide accommodations for students with disabilities to ensure academic success and access to the learning environment, as mandated by Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.
Citation: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (2020).
2. Accommodations
Definition: Changes in how a student accesses information and demonstrates learning without altering the instructional level, content, or performance criteria.
Citation: National Center on Accessible Educational Materials (2021).
3. Assistive Technology
Definition: Any item, equipment, or product system used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.
Citation: IDEA Sec. 300.5 (2004).
4. Differentiated Instruction
Definition: An approach to teaching in which educators actively plan for students’ differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs by varying content, process, and product.
Citation: Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). *How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms*. ASCD.
5. FAPE (Free Appropriate Public Education)
Definition: FAPE guarantees that students with disabilities receive necessary education services at no cost, tailored to their individual needs through an IEP or 504 Plan.
Citation: IDEA Sec. 300.17 (2004).
6. IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)
Definition: A federal law ensuring services to children with disabilities throughout the nation. IDEA governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special education, and related services.
Citation: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004). Public Law 108–446.
7. IEP (Individualized Education Program)
Definition: An IEP is a legal document developed for each public school child in the U.S. who needs special education, outlining specific learning goals and the services the school will provide.
Citation: IDEA Sec. 300.320 (2004).
8. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Definition: LRE is the setting that allows a student with a disability to receive an appropriate education designed to meet their special needs while still being educated with peers without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate.
Citation: IDEA Sec. 300.114 (2004).
9. Modifications
Definition: Changes in what a student is expected to learn and demonstrate, altering the curriculum or performance expectations.
Citation: National Center on Educational Outcomes (2021).
10. Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
Definition: UDL is an educational framework that guides the development of flexible learning environments to accommodate individual learning differences.
Citation: CAST (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines Version 2.2.
Teaching Strategies
1. Active Learning
Definition: A teaching method that engages students in the learning process through activities like discussion, problem-solving, case studies, role plays, and group work.
Citation: Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom.
2. Scaffolding
Definition: A strategy where teachers provide successive levels of temporary support to help students achieve deeper levels of understanding and skill acquisition.
Citation: Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society.
3. Think-Pair-Share
Definition: A collaborative learning strategy where students first think about a question individually, then pair with a partner to discuss their thoughts, and finally share with the larger group.
Citation: Lyman, F. (1981). The Responsive Classroom Discussion.
4. Formative Assessment
Definition: Assessment for learning conducted during the instructional process to provide feedback and guide teaching decisions.
Citation: Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the Black Box.
5. Direct Instruction
Definition: A structured, teacher-centered instructional approach that uses explicit teaching techniques, such as lectures or demonstrations.
Citation: Rosenshine, B. (1987). *Explicit teaching and direct instruction*.
6. Differentiated Instruction
Definition: An instructional approach where teachers tailor content, process, and product based on students’ readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles.
Citation: Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). *How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms*. ASCD.
7. Cooperative Learning
Definition: A teaching strategy in which small groups of students work together on a common task, leveraging each other’s strengths.
Citation: Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1998).
8. Modeling
Definition: A teaching strategy where the teacher demonstrates a skill or concept to guide student learning, often using think-alouds or examples.
Citation: Bandura, A. (1977). *Social Learning Theory*.
9. Socratic Questioning
Definition: A dialogical teaching method that involves asking a series of thought-provoking questions to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas.
Citation: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). *The thinker’s guide to the art of Socratic questioning*.
10. Metacognition
Definition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own thinking and learning processes, often considered a key component of self-regulated learning.
Citation: Flavell, J. H. (1979). *Metacognition and Cognitive Monitoring*.
Technology Dictionary
Essential terms for understanding digital tools and practices in modern classrooms
1. 1:1 (One-to-One)
Definition: A technology initiative in which each student is provided with a personal digital device, such as a laptop or tablet, to support learning.
Citation: In a 1:1 classroom, every student has a Chromebook and accesses digital resources throughout the school day.
2. Algorithm
Definition: A step-by-step set of instructions used by computers to perform specific tasks, including decision-making, filtering content, or delivering search results.
Citation: Students examine how video recommendation algorithms on platforms like YouTube influence what they see and learn online.
3. Analytics
Definition: The use of data analysis tools to interpret patterns in student behavior, engagement, and performance in digital learning environments.
Citation: A teacher uses analytics from an LMS to identify which students are struggling to complete homework on time.
4. Blended Learning
Definition: An instructional model that combines traditional face-to-face teaching with digital or online components to enhance learning flexibility and personalization.
Citation: Students rotate between small group instruction, online modules, and independent practice stations.
5. ChatGPT
Definition: An AI chatbot developed by OpenAI that uses a large language model to understand and generate natural language responses, often used for educational assistance, writing, and conversation.
Citation: Students use ChatGPT to brainstorm ideas for persuasive essays and compare them to their own drafts.
6. Computer-Based Programs
Definition: Instructional software or applications designed to provide practice, tutorials, simulations, or content delivery on a digital device.
Citation: A student practices math skills using an adaptive computer program that provides immediate feedback and adjusts difficulty.
7. Cyberbullying
Definition: The use of digital communication tools—such as social media, texting, or email—to harass, threaten, or humiliate others.
Citation: A school implements an anonymous reporting system and teaches students how to respond to online bullying.
8. Data
Definition: Digital information collected from or about users that can be used to monitor performance, inform instruction, or personalize learning.
Citation: Teachers analyze student quiz data to identify patterns and adjust lesson plans accordingly.
9. Digital Citizenship
Definition: The responsible and ethical use of technology, including internet safety, respectful communication, protecting personal information, and understanding digital footprints.
Citation: A middle school class discusses how to spot misinformation on social media and report online bullying.
10. Independent and Self-Directed Learning Platforms
Definition: Online platforms that support learners in pursuing knowledge at their own pace with minimal teacher direction, often through video lessons, quizzes, and interactive content.
Citation: A student uses Khan Academy to review algebra concepts and track their own progress.
11. Learning Management System (LMS)
Definition: A digital platform used to organize, deliver, and track instructional content, assignments, assessments, and communication between teachers and students.
Citation: A teacher posts weekly lessons and quizzes in Canvas, and students turn in assignments and receive feedback through the platform.
12. Podcasting
Definition: The creation and distribution of audio episodes, often used in education to deliver content, tell stories, or encourage student expression.
Citation: Students produce a podcast series to explain science concepts to their peers using interviews and original audio recordings.
13. Privacy
Definition: The right of students and educators to control access to their personal information, particularly in digital spaces and when using educational technology.
Citation: A teacher explains why students should avoid sharing their full names and locations when using online discussion boards.
14. Screencasting
Definition: The process of recording a digital video of a computer screen, often with narration, used to create tutorials or demonstrate tasks.
Citation: A teacher records a step-by-step screencast on how to solve multi-step equations for students to revisit as needed.
15. Sync Teaching
Definition: A flexible instructional model that allows students to engage in independent learning while periodically synchronizing with the teacher or class for direction, feedback, or collaboration.
Citation: Students complete a research project independently but meet at specific checkpoints to review their progress and refine their approach.
16. Video Streaming
Definition: The real-time delivery of video content over the internet, allowing students to watch lessons, documentaries, or lectures without downloading files.
Citation: A class watches a live-streamed NASA launch as part of a space science unit.
Works Cited
Assessment Terms
- Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. *Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice*, *5*(1), 7–74.
- Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment. *American Psychologist*, *50*(9), 741–749.
- Nitko, A. J., & Brookhart, S. M. (2011). *Educational assessment of students*. Pearson.
- Perie, M., Marion, S., & Gong, B. (2007). *A framework for considering interim assessments*. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice.
- Popham, W. J. (2005). *Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know*. Pearson Education.
- Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. *Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation*, *2*(2).
Classroom Management Terms
- Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2016). *Classroom management for elementary teachers*. Pearson.
- Evans, K. R., & Vaandering, D. (2016). *The little book of restorative justice in education*. Good Books.
- Freiberg, H. J. (1999). *School climate: Measuring, improving and sustaining healthy learning environments*. Routledge.
- Marzano, R. J. (2007). *The art and science of teaching*. ASCD.
- Skinner, B. F. (1953). *Science and human behavior*. Macmillan.
- Wong, H. K., & Wong, R. T. (2009). *The first days of school: How to be an effective teacher*. Harry K. Wong Publications.
Critical Thinking
- Copi, I. M., Cohen, C., & McMahon, K. (2014). *Introduction to logic*. Pearson.
- Ennis, R. H. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. *Theory Into Practice*, *32*(3), 179–186.
- Facione, P. A. (1990). *Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus*. American Philosophical Association.
- Halpern, D. F. (2013). *Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking*. Psychology Press.
- Kahneman, D. (2011). *Thinking, fast and slow*. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
- Kuhn, D. (1991). *The skills of argument*. Cambridge University Press.
- Lipman, M. (2003). *Thinking in education*. Cambridge University Press.
- McPeck, J. E. (1981). *Critical thinking and education*. St. Martin’s Press.
- Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2008). *The miniature guide to critical thinking: Concepts and tools*. Foundation for Critical Thinking.
- Toulmin, S. (1958). *The uses of argument*. Cambridge University Press.
Mental Health
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). *Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders* (5th ed.).
- Brown, B. (2006). Shame resilience theory. *The Journal of Counseling & Development*, *84*(1), 1–10.
- Herman, J. L. (1992). *Trauma and recovery*. Basic Books.
- National Institute of Mental Health. (2022). *Depression*. Retrieved from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/depression
- Seligman, M. E. P. (2006). *Learned optimism*. Vintage.
Models and Frameworks
- Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st century: Skills for the future. *The Clearing House*, *83*(2), 39–43.
- Heick, T. (2013). *The TeachThought learning taxonomy*. TeachThought.com.
- Heick, T. (2015). *The Me learning framework*. TeachThought.com.
- Heick, T. (2016). *Inside-out learning: A model for community-centered education*. TeachThought.com.
- Heick, T. (2017). *The sync teaching method*. TeachThought.com.
- Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). *21st century skills: Learning for life in our times*. Jossey-Bass.
Pedagogy
- Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). *Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom*. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1.
- Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2014). *Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility*. ASCD.
- Justice, C., Rice, J., Warry, W., et al. (2007). Inquiry in higher education: Reflections and directions on course design and teaching methods. *Innovative Higher Education*, *31*(4), 201–214.
- McCombs, B. L., & Whisler, J. S. (1997). *The learner-centered classroom and school: Strategies for increasing student motivation and achievement*. Jossey-Bass.
- Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). *The Socratic method*. Foundation for Critical Thinking.
- Rosenshine, B. (1987). Explicit teaching and teacher training. *Journal of Teacher Education*, *38*(3), 34–36.
- Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. *Educational Researcher*, *15*(2), 4–14.
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). *Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes*. Harvard University Press.
Project-Based Learning (PBL)
- Allen, D., & Blythe, T. (2004). *The facilitator’s book of questions*. Teachers College Press.
- Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st century: Skills for the future. *The Clearing House*, *83*(2), 39–43.
- Berger, R. (2003). *An ethic of excellence: Building a culture of craftsmanship with students*. Heinemann.
- Boss, S., & Krauss, J. (2014). *Reinventing project-based learning*. ISTE.
- Buck Institute for Education. (2015). *Gold Standard PBL design elements*.
- Buck Institute for Education. (2017). *Project design rubric*.
- Larmer, J. (2018). What does student voice really mean in PBL? *PBLWorks*.
- Larmer, J., & Mergendoller, J. R. (2010). Seven essentials for project-based learning. *Educational Leadership*, *68*(1), 34–37.
- Larmer, J., & Mergendoller, J. R. (2015). *Gold Standard PBL: Essential project design elements*. Buck Institute for Education.
- Thomas, J. W. (2000). A review of research on project-based learning. *The Autodesk Foundation*.
Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
- Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2004). *Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications*. Guilford Press.
- Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). (2020). *Core SEL competencies*.
- Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). (2020). *SEL framework*.
- Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (2000). *Habits of mind: A developmental series*. ASCD.
- Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2006). A social–neuroscience perspective on empathy. *Current Directions in Psychological Science*, *15*(2), 54–58.
- Durlak, J. A., et al. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis. *Child Development*, *82*(1), 405–432.
- Goleman, D. (1995). *Emotional intelligence*. Bantam Books.
Special Education
- CAST. (2018). *Universal Design for Learning guidelines version 2.2*.
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. (2004). Public Law 108–446.
- National Center on Accessible Educational Materials. (2021).
- National Center on Educational Outcomes. (2021).
- Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). *How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms*. ASCD.
- U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights. (2020).
Teaching Strategies
- Bandura, A. (1977). *Social learning theory*.
- Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). *Inside the black box*.
- Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). *Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom*.
- Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring.
- Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1998). [Title Missing].
- Note: The original HTML for this citation did not include a specific title. While the authors are prominent in the field of cooperative learning, a precise APA citation requires the full title of the work.
- Lyman, F. (1981). The responsive classroom discussion.
- Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). *The thinker’s guide to the art of Socratic questioning*.
- Rosenshine, B. (1987). *Explicit teaching and direct instruction*.
- Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). *How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms*.
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). *Mind in society*.