Critical Thinking
Core concepts and skills involved in analyzing, evaluating, and constructing arguments and information.
1. Abstract
Definition: A concept or idea that is not physical or concrete, often existing in thought or theory rather than having a material or tangible existence.
Classroom Example: In a philosophy class, students discuss “justice” as an abstract concept, exploring its various interpretations rather than a specific legal case.
Citation: Piaget, J. (1950). *The psychology of intelligence*. Routledge.
2. Accuracy
Definition: The quality of being correct, precise, or free from error, often referring to the degree of conformity of a measure or calculation to a true or accepted value.
Classroom Example: Students in a science lab carefully measure chemicals, aiming for high accuracy in their results to ensure the experiment’s validity.
Citation: American Psychological Association. (2020). *Publication manual of the American Psychological Association* (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.
3. Analysis
Definition: The process of breaking down complex information into smaller parts to examine how they relate to one another, often to understand its structure, components, or underlying principles.
Classroom Example: A student compares multiple perspectives in a debate by separating claims, evidence, and assumptions from each speaker.
Citation: Ennis, R. H. (1993). *Critical Thinking Assessment*. Theory Into Practice, 32(3), 179–186.
4. Analogy
Definition: A comparison that shows similarities between two otherwise dissimilar things, often used to explain a complex concept by relating it to something more familiar.
Classroom Example: A teacher explains how a cell is like a factory (nucleus as management, mitochondria as power plant) to help students understand its functions.
Citation: Gentner, D. (1983). Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. *Cognitive Science*, *7*(2), 155-170.
5. Antonym
Definition: A word that has the opposite meaning of another word, used to expand vocabulary and deepen understanding of word relationships.
Classroom Example: Students are given a list of words and asked to identify their antonyms, such as “hot” and “cold,” or “fast” and “slow.”
Citation: Nation, I. S. P. (2001). *Learning vocabulary in another language*. Cambridge University Press.
6. Apply
Definition: To use knowledge, principles, or reasoning in a new or different situation, demonstrating understanding beyond mere recall.
Classroom Example: After learning about the principles of levers, students are asked to apply this knowledge to design a simple machine that can lift a heavy object.
Citation: Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). *A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives*. Longman.
7. Argument
Definition: In critical thinking, an argument is a reasoned set of claims intended to support a conclusion using evidence and logic.
Classroom Example: In a persuasive essay, students structure their writing with a claim, supporting evidence, and refutations of counterclaims.
Citation: Toulmin, S. (1958). *The Uses of Argument*. Cambridge University Press.
8. Association
Definition: A connection or relationship between two or more things, ideas, or events, often based on shared traits, common occurrence, or learned links.
Classroom Example: During a brainstorming session, students make associations between different historical events and their potential long-term impacts.
Citation: Medin, D. L., & Schaffer, M. M. (1978). Context theory of classification learning. *Psychological Review*, *85*(3), 207–238.
9. Assumption
Definition: An unstated premise or belief that underlies an argument or line of reasoning, often taken for granted without proof or evidence. Identifying assumptions is key to evaluating an argument’s validity.
Classroom Example: Students analyze the assumptions behind a historical policy, identifying biases in its creation and consequences.
Citation: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2008). *The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools*. Foundation for Critical Thinking.
10. Attribute
Definition: A quality, characteristic, or property that belongs to something or someone, used for description, classification, or analysis.
Classroom Example: Students identify the key attributes of different geometric shapes, such as the number of sides, angles, and symmetry.
Citation: Rosch, E., & Mervis, C. B. (1975). Family resemblances: Studies in the internal structure of categories. *Cognitive Psychology*, *7*(4), 573–605.
11. Balance
Definition: A state in which different elements or forces are in proper proportion or equilibrium, allowing them to work together effectively or maintain stability. In critical thinking, it refers to considering multiple perspectives fairly.
Classroom Example: In a debate, students are encouraged to present a balanced argument by acknowledging counterpoints and providing evidence for both sides.
Citation: Walton, D. (2006). *Fundamentals of critical argumentation*. Cambridge University Press.
12. Bias
Definition: A systematic deviation from objective judgment due to personal beliefs, emotions, or social pressures, often leading to unfair or inaccurate conclusions.
Classroom Example: Students review news articles to identify and discuss linguistic or selection bias.
Citation: Kahneman, D. (2011). *Thinking, Fast and Slow*. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
13. Breakdown
Definition: The act of dividing a complex system, problem, or concept into smaller, more manageable parts to facilitate analysis, understanding, or troubleshooting.
Classroom Example: When faced with a multi-step math problem, students learn to break down the problem into smaller, solvable equations.
Citation: Polya, G. (1945). *How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method*. Princeton University Press.
14. Category
Definition: A group of things that share common characteristics or properties, used for organization, classification, and understanding relationships between concepts.
Classroom Example: Students sort different animals into categories based on their diet (herbivore, carnivore, omnivore) or habitat (aquatic, terrestrial).
Citation: Lakoff, G. (1987). *Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind*. University of Chicago Press.
15. Cause/Effect
Definition: A fundamental relationship where one event or action (the cause) directly leads to another event or outcome (the effect), crucial for understanding processes and consequences.
Classroom Example: Students analyze historical events, identifying the causes of World War I and its subsequent effects on global politics.
Citation: Pearl, J. (2000). *Causality: Models, reasoning, and inference*. Cambridge University Press.
16. Claim
Definition: A statement or assertion presented as fact, often forming the central point or thesis of an argument, which requires supporting evidence.
Classroom Example: During a science experiment, a student claims that light affects plant growth and supports it with their data.
Citation: Kuhn, D. (1991). *The Skills of Argument*. Cambridge University Press.
17. Classification
Definition: The systematic process of grouping things, ideas, or information into categories based on shared characteristics, helping to organize knowledge and facilitate understanding.
Classroom Example: In a biology class, students classify different species of plants based on their reproductive methods (e.g., flowering, spore-producing).
Citation: Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). *A study of thinking*. John Wiley & Sons.
18. Comparison
Definition: The act of examining two or more things to identify their similarities and differences, often done to gain a deeper understanding or to make informed judgments.
Classroom Example: Students compare and contrast two different literary genres, such as poetry and prose, noting their structural and thematic similarities and differences.
Citation: Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. *American Psychologist*, *52*(1), 45–56.
19. Component
Definition: A distinct and often essential part or element of a larger whole, system, or structure, which contributes to its overall function.
Classroom Example: Students identify the different components of a computer system, such as the CPU, memory, and storage, and explain their individual roles.
Citation: Simon, H. A. (1962). The architecture of complexity. *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society*, *106*(6), 467–482.
20. Concrete
Definition: Something that can be experienced directly with the senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell), or that is tangible, specific, and real, as opposed to abstract.
Classroom Example: A teacher uses concrete manipulatives like blocks or counters to help elementary students understand abstract math concepts like addition and subtraction.
Citation: Piaget, J. (1964). Development and learning. *Journal of Research in Science Teaching*, *2*(3), 176–186.
21. Connection
Definition: The link, relationship, or association between two or more ideas, events, people, or objects, indicating how they are related or influence each other.
Classroom Example: Students make connections between a historical event they are studying and current events, discussing how past actions might influence the present.
Citation: Bransford, J. D., & Johnson, M. K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. *Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior*, *11*(6), 717–726.
22. Context
Definition: The circumstances, background, or setting that surrounds an event, statement, or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood and assessed.
Classroom Example: When analyzing a historical speech, students research the political and social context of the time to fully grasp its meaning and impact.
Citation: Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). *Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes*. Harvard University Press.
23. Contrast
Definition: The act of identifying the differences between two or more things, often to highlight their unique qualities or to make a distinction.
Classroom Example: Students write an essay contrasting the themes and characters of two different novels by the same author.
Citation: Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. *American Psychologist*, *52*(1), 45–56.
24. Corresponding
Definition: Matching or similar in form, function, position, or relationship; having an equivalent or parallel role in different situations or systems.
Classroom Example: In geometry, students identify corresponding angles when two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, understanding their equal measures.
Citation: Gelman, S. A., & Markman, E. M. (1986). Categories and induction in young children. *Cognition*, *23*(3), 183–209.
25. Correlation
Definition: A statistical relationship between two or more variables, indicating the extent to which they change together. A positive correlation means they increase or decrease together; a negative correlation means one increases as the other decreases. It does not imply causation.
Classroom Example: Students analyze data showing a correlation between hours of study and test scores, understanding that while they tend to rise together, studying doesn’t necessarily *cause* higher scores (other factors might be involved).
Citation: Cohen, J. (1988). *Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences* (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
26. Critical Thinking
Definition: The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
Classroom Example: Students engage in a debate about a controversial historical event, requiring them to analyze sources, evaluate arguments, and synthesize information to form their own reasoned positions.
Citation: Facione, P. A. (1990). *Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus*. American Philosophical Association.
27. Deduce
Definition: To use logical reasoning and evidence to form a conclusion that must be true if the premises are true, moving from general principles to specific instances.
Classroom Example: Given the general rule that “all mammals breathe air” and the specific observation that “whales breathe air,” students can deduce that whales are mammals.
Citation: Johnson-Laird, P. N. (2006). *How we reason*. Oxford University Press.
28. Deductive Reasoning
Definition: A type of logical reasoning that moves from general principles or premises to specific conclusions. If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.
Classroom Example: Given the premise “All birds have feathers” and “A robin is a bird,” students deductively conclude that “A robin has feathers.”
Citation: Johnson-Laird, P. N. (2006). *How we reason*. Oxford University Press.
29. Degree
Definition: A measurable level, extent, or intensity of something, often used to quantify qualities or to indicate a position on a scale.
Classroom Example: Students assess the degree of pollution in a local river by measuring various chemical levels and comparing them to established environmental standards.
Citation: Stevens, S. S. (1946). On the theory of scales of measurement. *Science*, *103*(2684), 677–680.
30. Element
Definition: A basic, fundamental, or essential part of something larger, necessary for its composition, structure, or function.
Classroom Example: In a chemistry class, students learn that oxygen and hydrogen are elements that combine to form water.
Citation: Mendeleev, D. I. (1869). The correlation of the properties and atomic weights of the elements. *Journal of the Russian Chemical Society*, *1*(2), 60-77.
31. Empirical Evidence
Definition: Information or data acquired through observation, experimentation, or direct sensory experience, forming the basis for scientific knowledge and reasoned conclusions.
Classroom Example: After conducting an experiment on plant growth, students present their empirical evidence (measurements, observations) to support their conclusions about the effect of light.
Citation: Popper, K. R. (1959). *The logic of scientific discovery*. Routledge.
32. Equivalent
Definition: Having the same value, function, meaning, or effect as something else, even if different in form or appearance.
Classroom Example: Students learn that 1/2, 0.5, and 50% are equivalent representations of the same quantity.
Citation: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). *Principles and standards for school mathematics*. NCTM.
33. Evaluation
Definition: The process of assessing the credibility, relevance, significance, or value of information, arguments, or ideas to form a reasoned judgment.
Classroom Example: Students rate the reliability of different sources in a research paper and explain their reasoning.
Citation: Facione, P. A. (1990). *Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus*. American Philosophical Association.
34. Evidence
Definition: Factual information, data, or observations used to support a claim, argument, or conclusion, providing a basis for belief or action.
Classroom Example: Students cite historical documents to back up their thesis in a social studies paper.
Citation: McPeck, J. E. (1981). *Critical Thinking and Education*. St. Martin’s Press.
35. Feature
Definition: A distinct or defining characteristic, quality, or attribute of something, often used to differentiate it from others or to describe its properties.
Classroom Example: Students identify the key features of a persuasive essay, such as a clear thesis statement, supporting arguments, and a call to action.
Citation: Tversky, A. (1977). Features of similarity. *Psychological Review*, *84*(4), 327–352.
36. Figurative
Definition: Expressing meaning in a non-literal or symbolic way, often through figures of speech like metaphors, similes, or personification, to create imagery or deeper understanding.
Classroom Example: In a poetry analysis, students identify figurative language, explaining how the line “The wind whispered secrets” uses personification.
Citation: Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). *Metaphors we live by*. University of Chicago Press.
37. Function
Definition: The specific role, purpose, or activity that something is designed or expected to perform within a system or context.
Classroom Example: Students learn the function of different organs in the human body, such as the heart’s function of pumping blood.
Citation: Merton, R. K. (1968). *Social theory and social structure*. Free Press.
38. Generalization
Definition: A broad statement or conclusion that applies to many situations or individuals, derived from specific observations or limited evidence. While useful, generalizations can sometimes lead to oversimplification or stereotypes.
Classroom Example: After studying several examples of propaganda, students form a generalization about common persuasive techniques used to influence public opinion.
Citation: Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). *Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment*. Prentice-Hall.
39. Heuristic
Definition: A practical, mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps in problem-solving or decision-making, especially when faced with complex or uncertain situations. Heuristics are not guaranteed to be optimal or correct, but they are efficient.
Classroom Example: When trying to solve a complex math problem, a student uses the “work backward” heuristic to simplify the process.
Citation: Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. *Science*, *185*(4157), 1124–1131.
40. Inference
Definition: The process of drawing logical conclusions from available information or evidence, even when the conclusion is not explicitly stated. It involves making educated guesses based on what is known.
Classroom Example: After reading a short story, students infer a character’s motivation based on indirect clues in the text.
Citation: Halpern, D. F. (2013). *Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking*. Psychology Press.
41. Inductive Reasoning
Definition: A type of logical reasoning that moves from specific observations or examples to general conclusions. The conclusions are probable but not guaranteed to be true.
Classroom Example: After observing that several local businesses recycle, students inductively conclude that most businesses in their town recycle.
Citation: Holland, J. H., Holyoak, K. J., Nisbett, R. E., & Thagard, P. R. (1986). *Induction: Processes of inference, learning, and discovery*. MIT Press.
42. Logical Fallacy
Definition: A flaw in the structure or content of an argument that renders it invalid or unsound, even if the conclusion seems plausible. Identifying logical fallacies is crucial for evaluating the credibility of arguments.
Classroom Example: Students are given examples of political advertisements and asked to identify logical fallacies, such as a “bandwagon” fallacy where an argument suggests something is true because many people believe it.
Citation: Damer, T. E. (2009). *Attacking faulty reasoning: A practical guide to fallacy-free arguments* (6th ed.). Wadsworth.
43. Logic
Definition: The formal principles of valid reasoning and the systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. It provides a framework for constructing sound arguments.
Classroom Example: Students diagram deductive arguments in a philosophy class to test validity.
Citation: Copi, I. M., Cohen, C., & McMahon, K. (2014). *Introduction to Logic*. Pearson.
44. Metacognition
Definition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, including how one thinks, learns, and solves problems. In critical thinking, it involves reflecting on one’s own reasoning to identify biases or errors.
Classroom Example: After solving a complex problem, students reflect on the steps they took, what challenges they faced, and what strategies helped them overcome those challenges.
Citation: Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. *American Psychologist*, *34*(10), 906–911.
45. Metaphor
Definition: A figure of speech that directly compares two unlike things by stating that one *is* the other, without using “like” or “as,” to create a deeper meaning or vivid imagery.
Classroom Example: In a literature class, students analyze the metaphor “The classroom was a zoo” to understand the chaotic atmosphere the author intended to convey.
Citation: Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). *Metaphors we live by*. University of Chicago Press.
46. Observation
Definition: The act of carefully noticing or perceiving something, often systematically, using one’s senses or tools, to gather information or data without interpretation.
Classroom Example: In a science experiment, students make detailed observations of plant growth over time, recording changes in height, leaf color, and stem thickness.
Citation: Chalmers, A. F. (1999). *What is this thing called science?* (3rd ed.). Open University Press.
47. Paradigm
Definition: A typical example, model, or conceptual framework that serves as a fundamental way of thinking about, perceiving, and understanding a particular subject or reality, often influencing research and practice within a discipline.
Classroom Example: In a science class, students learn about the shift from the geocentric paradigm (Earth-centered universe) to the heliocentric paradigm (sun-centered universe) in astronomy.
Citation: Kuhn, T. S. (1962). *The structure of scientific revolutions*. University of Chicago Press.
48. Parallel
Definition: Two or more things that share structural similarities, analogous characteristics, or a comparable relationship, often used for comparison or to draw connections.
Classroom Example: Students draw parallels between the challenges faced by civil rights movements in different historical periods, noting similar strategies and obstacles.
Citation: Gentner, D. (1983). Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. *Cognitive Science*, *7*(2), 155-170.
49. Pattern Recognition
Definition: The cognitive ability to identify repeated sequences, trends, or regularities in data, information, or events, which is fundamental to learning, problem-solving, and making predictions.
Classroom Example: In a math class, students identify patterns in number sequences (e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8…) to predict the next number or formulate a rule.
Citation: Simon, H. A. (1996). *The sciences of the artificial* (3rd ed.). MIT Press.
50. Perspective
Definition: A particular point of view, attitude, or way of regarding something, often shaped by one’s experiences, background, or values. Understanding multiple perspectives is crucial for critical thinking.
Classroom Example: When studying a historical conflict, students analyze the event from the perspectives of different groups involved, using primary sources to understand their motivations and experiences.
Citation: Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1956). *The child’s conception of space*. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
51. Proportion
Definition: A mathematical or conceptual relationship between parts of a whole, or between quantities, indicating how they relate in size, amount, or degree.
Classroom Example: In art class, students learn about human proportions to draw realistic figures, understanding the relative size of body parts.
Citation: Euclid. (c. 300 BCE). *Elements*.
52. Purpose
Definition: The reason for which something is done or created, or for which something exists; the aim or intention behind an action, text, or object.
Classroom Example: When analyzing a persuasive essay, students identify the author’s purpose (e.g., to inform, to persuade, to entertain) and how it influences their writing choices.
Citation: Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. Morgan (Eds.), *Syntax and semantics, Vol. 3: Speech acts* (pp. 41–58). Academic Press.
53. Quantitative
Definition: Relating to or involving the measurement or amount of something, typically expressed in numerical terms, and often used in scientific or statistical analysis.
Classroom Example: In a research project, students collect quantitative data by counting the number of different bird species observed in a park.
Citation: Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). *Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches* (5th ed.). Sage Publications.
54. Ratio
Definition: A numerical comparison showing the relative size of two or more quantities, typically expressed as “a to b” or a fraction.
Classroom Example: Students calculate the ratio of boys to girls in their classroom, or the ratio of ingredients in a recipe.
Citation: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). *Principles and standards for school mathematics*. NCTM.
55. Reasoning
Definition: The cognitive process of drawing conclusions from premises or evidence, involving the systematic application of logic and critical thought to arrive at a judgment or solution.
Classroom Example: Students explain their problem-solving strategy in math by walking through their reasoning step by step.
Citation: Lipman, M. (2003). *Thinking in Education*. Cambridge University Press.
56. Reliability
Definition: The consistency or dependability of information, measurements, or evidence, indicating the extent to which repeated observations or tests produce the same or similar results.
Classroom Example: Students evaluate the reliability of a news source by checking if its reported facts are consistent across multiple reputable outlets.
Citation: Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. *Psychometrika*, *16*(3), 297–334.
57. Socratic Questioning
Definition: A disciplined process of asking questions to explore complex ideas, to get to the truth of things, to open up issues and problems, to uncover assumptions, to analyze concepts, to distinguish what we know from what we don’t know, and to follow out logical implications of thought.
Classroom Example: A teacher asks a series of probing questions during a class discussion on ethics, such as “Why do you believe that?” or “What evidence supports your claim?” to encourage deeper thought.
Citation: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). *The art of Socratic questioning*. Foundation for Critical Thinking.
58. Symbol
Definition: A representation of an idea, object, or relationship that stands for or suggests something else, often abstract, by association, resemblance, or convention.
Classroom Example: In a literature class, students analyze how a dove might be a symbol of peace in a poem.
Citation: Saussure, F. de. (1983). *Course in general linguistics*. Open Court.
59. Synthesis
Definition: The process of combining multiple distinct ideas, elements, or pieces of information to form a new, coherent whole or a more complex understanding. It involves integrating different parts into a unified structure.
Classroom Example: After researching various aspects of climate change, students synthesize their findings to write a comprehensive report that proposes solutions.
Citation: Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). *Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive domain*. David McKay.
60. Validity
Definition: The quality of an argument, conclusion, or measurement being logically sound, well-founded, and accurately measuring what it intends to measure. In critical thinking, it refers to the strength of the logical connection between premises and conclusion.
Classroom Example: Students evaluate the validity of a scientific study by examining whether its methods were appropriate and if the conclusions logically follow from the data.
Citation: Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment. *American Psychologist*, *50*(9), 741–749.
61. Whole to Part
Definition: A conceptual relationship in which a larger entity (the whole) is understood by examining its constituent components or smaller sections (the parts), and how these parts contribute to the whole.
Classroom Example: To understand a complex machine, students first identify its main parts and then analyze how each part contributes to the overall function of the whole machine.
Citation: Resnick, L. B. (1987). *Education and learning to think*. National Academy Press.