1. Affective Filter

Definition: An emotional state of stress in which the amygdala becomes hyperactive and blocks new sensory information from efficiently reaching higher cognitive centers, impeding learning and long-term memory formation.

Classroom Example: A student with test anxiety struggles to encode new material during review because heightened stress hinders processing.

Citation: Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press.

2. Amygdala

Definition: Almond-shaped nuclei in the temporal lobes central to emotion (especially fear/anxiety) and modulation of memory. Threat reactivity can act as an affective filter that hinders learning.

Classroom Example: Predictable, caring routines lower threat responses and keep learners receptive.

Citation: LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The Emotional Brain. Simon & Schuster.

3. Attention

Definition: Selective allocation of cognitive resources to target stimuli or tasks—prerequisite for effective encoding and memory.

Classroom Example: Using movement, novelty, or questions to capture and sustain attention during instruction.

Citation: Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Research on attention networks. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 1–23.

4. Axon

Definition: The long projection transmitting electrical impulses away from the neuron’s soma to other cells.

Classroom Example: A neuron diagram tracing signal flow down the axon to show how information travels.

Citation: Purves, D. et al. (2012). Neuroscience (5th ed.). Sinauer Associates.

5. Brain Imaging (Neuroimaging)

Definition: Techniques to visualize structure and function (e.g., MRI/CT for structure; fMRI/PET for activity via blood flow/metabolism changes).

Classroom Example: Students inspect fMRI maps of reading vs. calculation to see functional specialization.

Citation: Logothetis, N. K. (2008). What we can do and what we cannot do with fMRI. Nature, 453(7197), 869–878.

6. Brain Mapping

Definition: Using EEG/fMRI to visualize activation across neural pathways during perception, processing, and retrieval.

Classroom Example: Compare EEG patterns during calm reading vs. active problem-solving.

Citation: Poldrack, R. A. (2006). Can cognitive processes be inferred from neuroimaging data? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(2), 59–63.

7. Central Nervous System (CNS)

Definition: Brain and spinal cord—the body’s central integration and control system.

Classroom Example: Build models of brain + spinal cord to show pathways from sensation to action.

Citation: Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2015). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain (4th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.

8. Cerebellum

Definition: Posterior structure coordinating movement, balance, and motor learning (procedural memory).

Classroom Example: Practice dance routines or handwriting engages cerebellar learning.

Citation: Manto, M., & Jissendi, P. (2012). Cerebellum: Links between development, disorders and motor learning. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 6, 1.

9. Cerebral Cortex

Definition: The folded outer layer responsible for perception, language, reasoning, planning, and voluntary control.

Classroom Example: Project-based learning that requires planning, collaboration, and presentation.

Citation: Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2015). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (7th ed.). Worth.

10. Cognition

Definition: Mental processes of knowing: attention, memory, perception, language, problem-solving, reasoning, decision-making.

Classroom Example: Hypothesizing in science or analyzing characters in literature uses multiple cognitive processes.

Citation: Anderson, J. R. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th ed.). Worth.

11. Dendrites

Definition: Branching receivers of synaptic input; growth/branching increases with learning and experience.

Classroom Example: Repeated practice in music/math strengthens dendritic architecture in relevant circuits.

Citation: Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

12. Dopamine

Definition: Neurotransmitter central to attention, motivation, reward learning, and executive functioning.

Classroom Example: Positive feedback, novelty, and choice can enhance engagement via reward pathways.

Citation: Schultz, W. (2002). Getting formal with dopamine and reward. Neuron, 36(2), 241–263.

13. Executive Functions

Definition: Prefrontal-mediated skills for goal-directed behavior: planning, inhibition, working memory, flexibility, monitoring.

Classroom Example: Scaffolding a research project with planners, checklists, and time-management supports EF.

Citation: Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168.

14. Glia

Definition: Non-neuronal cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia) supporting and modulating neural function.

Classroom Example: “Support staff” metaphor helps learners see why neurons need a robust cellular environment.

Citation: Fields, R. D. (2004). The other half of the brain. Scientific American, 290(4), 54–61.

15. Graphic Organizers

Definition: Visual structures that align with the brain’s patterning bias and aid encoding, consolidation, and retrieval.

Classroom Example: Venn diagrams and cause-effect charts deepen comprehension and retention.

Citation: Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom Instruction That Works. ASCD.

16. Gray Matter

Definition: Neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, synapses, and supporting cells—primary site of processing and integration.

Classroom Example: Contrast gray vs. white matter roles with brain models during anatomy lessons.

Citation: Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010). Structural MRI of pediatric brain development. Neuron, 67(5), 728–734.

17. Hippocampus

Definition: Medial temporal structure critical for forming new declarative memories and spatial memory; supports consolidation.

Classroom Example: Connecting field-trip content to prior knowledge improves consolidation and recall.

Citation: Squire, L. R., & Zola-Morgan, S. (1991). The medial temporal lobe memory system. Science, 253(5026), 1380–1386.

18. Limbic System

Definition: Functionally linked structures (hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus) mediating emotion, motivation, and memory.

Classroom Example: Emotional safety and collaborative discussion can enhance motivation and retention.

Citation: Rolls, E. T. (2015). Limbic systems for emotion and for memory. Cortex, 62, 119–157.

19. Long-Term Memory

Definition: Durable storage over minutes to a lifetime; strengthened by repetition, retrieval practice, and elaborative connections.

Classroom Example: Spaced repetition and concept maps help transfer new ideas into long-term memory.

Citation: Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (H. A. Ruger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). Dover. (Original work published 1885.)

20. Metacognition

Definition: Knowledge of and control over one’s cognitive processes (monitoring, planning, strategy adjustment).

Classroom Example: Post-writing reflections on helpful strategies and future adjustments.

Citation: Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911.

21. Myelin

Definition: Fatty sheath around axons that speeds and stabilizes signal conduction.

Classroom Example: Deliberate practice automates skills as circuits strengthen and signaling becomes more efficient.

Citation: Fields, R. D. (2008). White matter in learning and cognition. Trends in Neurosciences, 31(7), 361–370.

22. Myelination

Definition: Developmental process of myelin formation that continues through adolescence, enabling faster reliable signaling.

Classroom Example: Consistent decoding practice increases reading fluency via more efficient circuits.

Citation: Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Tessner, K. D., & Toga, A. W. (2001). Mapping continued brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: Inverse relationships during postadolescent brain maturation. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(22), 8819–8829.

23. Neuronal Circuits

Definition: Interconnected neuron networks whose synapses change strength with activity, supporting encoding and retrieval.

Classroom Example: Repeatedly practicing a skill strengthens the circuit and speeds recall.

Citation: Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2015). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain (4th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.

24. Neurons

Definition: Specialized cells for signaling (soma, axon, dendrites) that form the basis of nervous system communication.

Classroom Example: Pipe-cleaner neuron models to illustrate structure and information flow.

Citation: Purves, D. et al. (2012). Neuroscience (5th ed.). Sinauer Associates.

25. Neuroplasticity

Definition: Lifelong capacity of the brain to change via synaptic remodeling and (in some regions) neurogenesis.

Classroom Example: Framing mistakes as learning signals encourages perseverance and growth.

Citation: Pascual-Leone, A., Amedi, A., Fregni, F., & Merabet, L. B. (2005). The plastic human brain cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28, 377–401.

26. Neurotransmitters

Definition: Chemical messengers released at synapses that bind to receptors and modulate postsynaptic activity.

Classroom Example: “Key and lock” analogy for dopamine/serotonin effects on attention and mood.

Citation: Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

27. Numeracy

Definition: Understanding and applying numbers and mathematical reasoning across contexts.

Classroom Example: Counting songs, manipulatives, and games to build early numeracy foundations.

Citation: Steen, L. A. (2001). Mathematics and Democracy. NCED.

28. Occipital Lobes (Visual Processing Areas)

Definition: Posterior cortex regions for visual analysis of shape, color, motion, and spatial relations.

Classroom Example: Interpreting graphs or historic photographs engages visual cortex pattern detection.

Citation: Grill-Spector, K., & Malach, R. (2004). The human visual cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 649–677.

29. Oligodendrocytes

Definition: CNS glia that myelinate multiple axons to enable rapid signal conduction.

Classroom Example: Discuss how demyelination (e.g., MS) impacts cognition and movement.

Citation: Bradl, M., & Lassmann, H. (2010). Oligodendrocytes: Biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathologica, 119(1), 37–53.

30. Parietal Lobes

Definition: Posterior-superior cortex important for somatosensory processing, visuospatial integration, and sensorimotor coordination.

Classroom Example: Playing an instrument or typing integrates touch, vision, and movement.

Citation: Andersen, R. A. (1997). Multimodal

contributed to by Judy Willis M.D., M.Ed., and Rae Nishi, PhD