Pedagogy
Core teaching concepts, strategies, and philosophies that influence instructional design and classroom practices.
1. Active Learning
Definition: A teaching approach that actively engages students in the learning process through discussion, problem-solving, case studies, role plays, and other interactive methods.
Classroom Example: Rather than lecturing, a teacher asks students to analyze a real-world scenario in small groups and report back with solutions.
Citation: Bonwell, C.C., & Eison, J.A. (1991). *Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom.* ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1.
2. Direct Instruction
Definition: A structured, teacher-led model of instruction that emphasizes clear objectives, explicit teaching, guided practice, and feedback.
Classroom Example: A math teacher explains how to solve a type of equation, models the process, guides students through similar problems, then assigns independent practice.
Citation: Rosenshine, B. (1987). *Explicit Teaching and Teacher Training.* Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 34–36.
3. Gradual Release of Responsibility
Definition: An instructional model that moves from teacher-led instruction (“I do”), to guided practice (“We do”), to independent practice (“You do”).
Classroom Example: In writing instruction, the teacher models how to write an introduction, then co-writes one with the class, then asks students to write their own.
Citation: Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2014). *Better Learning Through Structured Teaching: A Framework for the Gradual Release of Responsibility.* ASCD.
4. Inquiry-Based Learning
Definition: A pedagogical strategy where students investigate questions, problems, or scenarios rather than simply receiving facts and information.
Classroom Example: A science class explores the water cycle by conducting experiments, collecting data, and generating explanations instead of just reading a textbook.
Citation: Justice, C., Rice, J., Warry, W., et al. (2007). *Inquiry in Higher Education: Reflections and Directions on Course Design and Teaching Methods.* Innovative Higher Education, 31(4), 201–214.
5. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
Definition: The intersection of content knowledge and pedagogical strategies—how well a teacher understands how to teach specific content effectively to students.
Classroom Example: A history teacher doesn’t just know historical facts but understands how to teach cause-and-effect using historical events students find meaningful.
Citation: Shulman, L. S. (1986). *Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching.* Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14.
6. Scaffolding
Definition: Instructional support given to students early in the learning process that is gradually removed as they become more proficient and independent.
Classroom Example: A teacher provides sentence starters and graphic organizers for an essay, then slowly phases them out as students become confident writers.
Citation: Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). *Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.* Harvard University Press.
7. Socratic Method
Definition: A form of inquiry-based teaching focused on dialogue and open-ended questioning that encourages critical thinking, reflection, and student-led discovery.
Classroom Example: In a literature class, the teacher asks questions that challenge assumptions and prompt deeper thinking rather than providing answers.
Citation: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). *The Socratic Method.* Foundation for Critical Thinking.
8. Student-Centered Learning
Definition: An educational approach that shifts the focus of instruction from teacher-led delivery to student-driven exploration, emphasizing autonomy, voice, and choice.
Classroom Example: Students select their own inquiry topics for a research project and set personalized learning goals based on interest and skill level.
Citation: McCombs, B. L., & Whisler, J. S. (1997). *The Learner-Centered Classroom and School: Strategies for Increasing Student Motivation and Achievement.* Jossey-Bass.
9. Differentiated Instruction
Definition: A pedagogical approach where teachers proactively plan and implement varied approaches to content, process, and product to meet the diverse learning needs of individual students in a classroom.
Classroom Example: A teacher offers students a choice of reading materials at different complexity levels on the same topic, or allows them to demonstrate understanding through a presentation, written report, or artistic creation.
Citation: Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). *How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms*. ASCD.
10. Cooperative Learning
Definition: An instructional strategy where small groups of students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It emphasizes positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face interaction, interpersonal skills, and group processing.
Classroom Example: Students work in assigned groups to complete a jigsaw reading activity, where each member is responsible for a different section of text and then teaches it to their group.
Citation: Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1994). *The nuts and bolts of cooperative learning*. Interaction Book Company.
11. Metacognition
Definition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own thinking processes, including the ability to monitor, regulate, and direct one’s learning. Teachers foster metacognition by prompting students to reflect on their learning strategies.
Classroom Example: A teacher asks students to keep a learning journal where they record what strategies they used to solve a problem and whether those strategies were effective.
Citation: Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. *American Psychologist*, *34*(10), 906–911.
12. Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT)
Definition: A pedagogy that recognizes the importance of including students’ cultural references in all aspects of learning. It uses the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and performance styles of diverse students to make learning more relevant and effective for them.
Classroom Example: A history teacher incorporates primary source documents and narratives from various cultural perspectives when teaching about historical events, allowing students to connect the content to their own backgrounds.
Citation: Gay, G. (2018). *Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice* (3rd ed.). Teachers College Press.
13. Flipped Classroom
Definition: An instructional strategy and a type of blended learning that reverses the traditional learning environment by delivering instructional content, often online, outside of the classroom, and moving activities, including those that may have traditionally been considered homework, into the classroom.
Classroom Example: Students watch pre-recorded video lectures on new math concepts at home, and then use class time to work on practice problems with teacher support and peer collaboration.
Citation: Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). *Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day*. International Society for Technology in Education.
14. Experiential Learning
Definition: A process of learning through experience, and is more specifically defined as “learning through reflection on doing.” It emphasizes direct experience and reflection as central to the learning process.
Classroom Example: Instead of just reading about ecosystems, students visit a local park to collect data, observe plant and animal interactions, and then reflect on their findings in class.
Citation: Kolb, D. A. (1984). *Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development*. Prentice-Hall.